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PERLFUNC(1perl)	       Perl Programmers Reference Guide	       PERLFUNC(1perl)

NAME
       perlfunc - Perl builtin functions

DESCRIPTION
       The functions in this section can serve as terms in an expression.
       They fall into two major categories: list operators and named unary
       operators.  These differ in their precedence relationship with a
       following comma.	 (See the precedence table in perlop.)	List operators
       take more than one argument, while unary operators can never take more
       than one argument.  Thus, a comma terminates the argument of a unary
       operator, but merely separates the arguments of a list operator.	 A
       unary operator generally provides scalar context to its argument, while
       a list operator may provide either scalar or list contexts for its
       arguments.  If it does both, scalar arguments come first and list
       argument follow, and there can only ever be one such list argument.
       For instance, splice() has three scalar arguments followed by a list,
       whereas gethostbyname() has four scalar arguments.

       In the syntax descriptions that follow, list operators that expect a
       list (and provide list context for elements of the list) are shown with
       LIST as an argument.  Such a list may consist of any combination of
       scalar arguments or list values; the list values will be included in
       the list as if each individual element were interpolated at that point
       in the list, forming a longer single-dimensional list value.  Commas
       should separate literal elements of the LIST.

       Any function in the list below may be used either with or without
       parentheses around its arguments.  (The syntax descriptions omit the
       parentheses.)  If you use parentheses, the simple but occasionally
       surprising rule is this: It looks like a function, therefore it is a
       function, and precedence doesn't matter.	 Otherwise it's a list
       operator or unary operator, and precedence does matter.	Whitespace
       between the function and left parenthesis doesn't count, so sometimes
       you need to be careful:

	   print 1+2+4;	     # Prints 7.
	   print(1+2) + 4;   # Prints 3.
	   print (1+2)+4;    # Also prints 3!
	   print +(1+2)+4;   # Prints 7.
	   print ((1+2)+4);  # Prints 7.

       If you run Perl with the -w switch it can warn you about this.  For
       example, the third line above produces:

	   print (...) interpreted as function at - line 1.
	   Useless use of integer addition in void context at - line 1.

       A few functions take no arguments at all, and therefore work as neither
       unary nor list operators.  These include such functions as "time" and
       "endpwent".  For example, "time+86_400" always means "time() + 86_400".

       For functions that can be used in either a scalar or list context,
       nonabortive failure is generally indicated in scalar context by
       returning the undefined value, and in list context by returning the
       empty list.

       Remember the following important rule: There is no rule that relates
       the behavior of an expression in list context to its behavior in scalar
       context, or vice versa.	It might do two totally different things.
       Each operator and function decides which sort of value would be most
       appropriate to return in scalar context.	 Some operators return the
       length of the list that would have been returned in list context.  Some
       operators return the first value in the list.  Some operators return
       the last value in the list.  Some operators return a count of
       successful operations.  In general, they do what you want, unless you
       want consistency.

       A named array in scalar context is quite different from what would at
       first glance appear to be a list in scalar context.  You can't get a
       list like "(1,2,3)" into being in scalar context, because the compiler
       knows the context at compile time.  It would generate the scalar comma
       operator there, not the list construction version of the comma.	That
       means it was never a list to start with.

       In general, functions in Perl that serve as wrappers for system calls
       ("syscalls") of the same name (like chown(2), fork(2), closedir(2),
       etc.) return true when they succeed and "undef" otherwise, as is
       usually mentioned in the descriptions below.  This is different from
       the C interfaces, which return "-1" on failure.	Exceptions to this
       rule include "wait", "waitpid", and "syscall".  System calls also set
       the special $!  variable on failure.  Other functions do not, except
       accidentally.

       Extension modules can also hook into the Perl parser to define new
       kinds of keyword-headed expression.  These may look like functions, but
       may also look completely different.  The syntax following the keyword
       is defined entirely by the extension.  If you are an implementor, see
       "PL_keyword_plugin" in perlapi for the mechanism.  If you are using
       such a module, see the module's documentation for details of the syntax
       that it defines.

   Perl Functions by Category
       Here are Perl's functions (including things that look like functions,
       like some keywords and named operators) arranged by category.  Some
       functions appear in more than one place.

       Functions for SCALARs or strings
	   "chomp", "chop", "chr", "crypt", "fc", "hex", "index", "lc",
	   "lcfirst", "length", "oct", "ord", "pack", "q//", "qq//",
	   "reverse", "rindex", "sprintf", "substr", "tr///", "uc", "ucfirst",
	   "y///"

	   "fc" is available only if the "fc" feature is enabled or if it is
	   prefixed with "CORE::".  The "fc" feature is enabled automatically
	   with a "use v5.16" (or higher) declaration in the current scope.

       Regular expressions and pattern matching
	   "m//", "pos", "qr//", "quotemeta", "s///", "split", "study"

       Numeric functions
	   "abs", "atan2", "cos", "exp", "hex", "int", "log", "oct", "rand",
	   "sin", "sqrt", "srand"

       Functions for real @ARRAYs
	   "each", "keys", "pop", "push", "shift", "splice", "unshift",
	   "values"

       Functions for list data
	   "grep", "join", "map", "qw//", "reverse", "sort", "unpack"

       Functions for real %HASHes
	   "delete", "each", "exists", "keys", "values"

       Input and output functions
	   "binmode", "close", "closedir", "dbmclose", "dbmopen", "die",
	   "eof", "fileno", "flock", "format", "getc", "print", "printf",
	   "read", "readdir", "readline" "rewinddir", "say", "seek",
	   "seekdir", "select", "syscall", "sysread", "sysseek", "syswrite",
	   "tell", "telldir", "truncate", "warn", "write"

	   "say" is available only if the "say" feature is enabled or if it is
	   prefixed with "CORE::".  The "say" feature is enabled automatically
	   with a "use v5.10" (or higher) declaration in the current scope.

       Functions for fixed-length data or records
	   "pack", "read", "syscall", "sysread", "sysseek", "syswrite",
	   "unpack", "vec"

       Functions for filehandles, files, or directories
	   "-X", "chdir", "chmod", "chown", "chroot", "fcntl", "glob",
	   "ioctl", "link", "lstat", "mkdir", "open", "opendir", "readlink",
	   "rename", "rmdir", "stat", "symlink", "sysopen", "umask", "unlink",
	   "utime"

       Keywords related to the control flow of your Perl program
	   "break", "caller", "continue", "die", "do", "dump", "eval",
	   "evalbytes" "exit", "__FILE__", "goto", "last", "__LINE__", "next",
	   "__PACKAGE__", "redo", "return", "sub", "__SUB__", "wantarray"

	   "break" is available only if you enable the experimental "switch"
	   feature or use the "CORE::" prefix. The "switch" feature also
	   enables the "default", "given" and "when" statements, which are
	   documented in "Switch Statements" in perlsyn. The "switch" feature
	   is enabled automatically with a "use v5.10" (or higher) declaration
	   in the current scope. In Perl v5.14 and earlier, "continue"
	   required the "switch" feature, like the other keywords.

	   "evalbytes" is only available with the "evalbytes" feature (see
	   feature) or if prefixed with "CORE::".  "__SUB__" is only available
	   with the "current_sub" feature or if prefixed with "CORE::". Both
	   the "evalbytes" and "current_sub" features are enabled
	   automatically with a "use v5.16" (or higher) declaration in the
	   current scope.

       Keywords related to scoping
	   "caller", "import", "local", "my", "our", "package", "state", "use"

	   "state" is available only if the "state" feature is enabled or if
	   it is prefixed with "CORE::".  The "state" feature is enabled
	   automatically with a "use v5.10" (or higher) declaration in the
	   current scope.

       Miscellaneous functions
	   "defined", "formline", "lock", "prototype", "reset", "scalar",
	   "undef"

       Functions for processes and process groups
	   "alarm", "exec", "fork", "getpgrp", "getppid", "getpriority",
	   "kill", "pipe", "qx//", "readpipe", "setpgrp", "setpriority",
	   "sleep", "system", "times", "wait", "waitpid"

       Keywords related to Perl modules
	   "do", "import", "no", "package", "require", "use"

       Keywords related to classes and object-orientation
	   "bless", "dbmclose", "dbmopen", "package", "ref", "tie", "tied",
	   "untie", "use"

       Low-level socket functions
	   "accept", "bind", "connect", "getpeername", "getsockname",
	   "getsockopt", "listen", "recv", "send", "setsockopt", "shutdown",
	   "socket", "socketpair"

       System V interprocess communication functions
	   "msgctl", "msgget", "msgrcv", "msgsnd", "semctl", "semget",
	   "semop", "shmctl", "shmget", "shmread", "shmwrite"

       Fetching user and group info
	   "endgrent", "endhostent", "endnetent", "endpwent", "getgrent",
	   "getgrgid", "getgrnam", "getlogin", "getpwent", "getpwnam",
	   "getpwuid", "setgrent", "setpwent"

       Fetching network info
	   "endprotoent", "endservent", "gethostbyaddr", "gethostbyname",
	   "gethostent", "getnetbyaddr", "getnetbyname", "getnetent",
	   "getprotobyname", "getprotobynumber", "getprotoent",
	   "getservbyname", "getservbyport", "getservent", "sethostent",
	   "setnetent", "setprotoent", "setservent"

       Time-related functions
	   "gmtime", "localtime", "time", "times"

       Non-function keywords
	   "and", "AUTOLOAD", "BEGIN", "CHECK", "cmp", "CORE", "__DATA__",
	   "default", "DESTROY", "else", "elseif", "elsif", "END", "__END__",
	   "eq", "for", "foreach", "ge", "given", "gt", "if", "INIT", "le",
	   "lt", "ne", "not", "or", "UNITCHECK", "unless", "until", "when",
	   "while", "x", "xor"

   Portability
       Perl was born in Unix and can therefore access all common Unix system
       calls.  In non-Unix environments, the functionality of some Unix system
       calls may not be available or details of the available functionality
       may differ slightly.  The Perl functions affected by this are:

       "-X", "binmode", "chmod", "chown", "chroot", "crypt", "dbmclose",
       "dbmopen", "dump", "endgrent", "endhostent", "endnetent",
       "endprotoent", "endpwent", "endservent", "exec", "fcntl", "flock",
       "fork", "getgrent", "getgrgid", "gethostbyname", "gethostent",
       "getlogin", "getnetbyaddr", "getnetbyname", "getnetent", "getppid",
       "getpgrp", "getpriority", "getprotobynumber", "getprotoent",
       "getpwent", "getpwnam", "getpwuid", "getservbyport", "getservent",
       "getsockopt", "glob", "ioctl", "kill", "link", "lstat", "msgctl",
       "msgget", "msgrcv", "msgsnd", "open", "pipe", "readlink", "rename",
       "select", "semctl", "semget", "semop", "setgrent", "sethostent",
       "setnetent", "setpgrp", "setpriority", "setprotoent", "setpwent",
       "setservent", "setsockopt", "shmctl", "shmget", "shmread", "shmwrite",
       "socket", "socketpair", "stat", "symlink", "syscall", "sysopen",
       "system", "times", "truncate", "umask", "unlink", "utime", "wait",
       "waitpid"

       For more information about the portability of these functions, see
       perlport and other available platform-specific documentation.

   Alphabetical Listing of Perl Functions
       -X FILEHANDLE
       -X EXPR
       -X DIRHANDLE
       -X  A file test, where X is one of the letters listed below.  This
	   unary operator takes one argument, either a filename, a filehandle,
	   or a dirhandle, and tests the associated file to see if something
	   is true about it.  If the argument is omitted, tests $_, except for
	   "-t", which tests STDIN.  Unless otherwise documented, it returns 1
	   for true and '' for false, or the undefined value if the file
	   doesn't exist.  Despite the funny names, precedence is the same as
	   any other named unary operator.  The operator may be any of:

	       -r  File is readable by effective uid/gid.
	       -w  File is writable by effective uid/gid.
	       -x  File is executable by effective uid/gid.
	       -o  File is owned by effective uid.

	       -R  File is readable by real uid/gid.
	       -W  File is writable by real uid/gid.
	       -X  File is executable by real uid/gid.
	       -O  File is owned by real uid.

	       -e  File exists.
	       -z  File has zero size (is empty).
	       -s  File has nonzero size (returns size in bytes).

	       -f  File is a plain file.
	       -d  File is a directory.
	       -l  File is a symbolic link.
	       -p  File is a named pipe (FIFO), or Filehandle is a pipe.
	       -S  File is a socket.
	       -b  File is a block special file.
	       -c  File is a character special file.
	       -t  Filehandle is opened to a tty.

	       -u  File has setuid bit set.
	       -g  File has setgid bit set.
	       -k  File has sticky bit set.

	       -T  File is an ASCII text file (heuristic guess).
	       -B  File is a "binary" file (opposite of -T).

	       -M  Script start time minus file modification time, in days.
	       -A  Same for access time.
	       -C  Same for inode change time (Unix, may differ for other
		   platforms)

	   Example:

	       while (<>) {
		   chomp;
		   next unless -f $_;  # ignore specials
		   #...
	       }

	   Note that "-s/a/b/" does not do a negated substitution.  Saying
	   "-exp($foo)" still works as expected, however: only single letters
	   following a minus are interpreted as file tests.

	   These operators are exempt from the "looks like a function rule"
	   described above.  That is, an opening parenthesis after the
	   operator does not affect how much of the following code constitutes
	   the argument.  Put the opening parentheses before the operator to
	   separate it from code that follows (this applies only to operators
	   with higher precedence than unary operators, of course):

	       -s($file) + 1024	  # probably wrong; same as -s($file + 1024)
	       (-s $file) + 1024  # correct

	   The interpretation of the file permission operators "-r", "-R",
	   "-w", "-W", "-x", and "-X" is by default based solely on the mode
	   of the file and the uids and gids of the user.  There may be other
	   reasons you can't actually read, write, or execute the file: for
	   example network filesystem access controls, ACLs (access control
	   lists), read-only filesystems, and unrecognized executable formats.
	   Note that the use of these six specific operators to verify if some
	   operation is possible is usually a mistake, because it may be open
	   to race conditions.

	   Also note that, for the superuser on the local filesystems, the
	   "-r", "-R", "-w", and "-W" tests always return 1, and "-x" and "-X"
	   return 1 if any execute bit is set in the mode.  Scripts run by the
	   superuser may thus need to do a stat() to determine the actual mode
	   of the file, or temporarily set their effective uid to something
	   else.

	   If you are using ACLs, there is a pragma called "filetest" that may
	   produce more accurate results than the bare stat() mode bits.  When
	   under "use filetest 'access'" the above-mentioned filetests test
	   whether the permission can(not) be granted using the access(2)
	   family of system calls.  Also note that the "-x" and "-X" may under
	   this pragma return true even if there are no execute permission
	   bits set (nor any extra execute permission ACLs).  This strangeness
	   is due to the underlying system calls' definitions.	Note also
	   that, due to the implementation of "use filetest 'access'", the "_"
	   special filehandle won't cache the results of the file tests when
	   this pragma is in effect.  Read the documentation for the
	   "filetest" pragma for more information.

	   The "-T" and "-B" switches work as follows.	The first block or so
	   of the file is examined for odd characters such as strange control
	   codes or characters with the high bit set.  If too many strange
	   characters (>30%) are found, it's a "-B" file; otherwise it's a
	   "-T" file.  Also, any file containing a zero byte in the first
	   block is considered a binary file.  If "-T" or "-B" is used on a
	   filehandle, the current IO buffer is examined rather than the first
	   block.  Both "-T" and "-B" return true on an empty file, or a file
	   at EOF when testing a filehandle.  Because you have to read a file
	   to do the "-T" test, on most occasions you want to use a "-f"
	   against the file first, as in "next unless -f $file && -T $file".

	   If any of the file tests (or either the "stat" or "lstat" operator)
	   is given the special filehandle consisting of a solitary underline,
	   then the stat structure of the previous file test (or stat
	   operator) is used, saving a system call.  (This doesn't work with
	   "-t", and you need to remember that lstat() and "-l" leave values
	   in the stat structure for the symbolic link, not the real file.)
	   (Also, if the stat buffer was filled by an "lstat" call, "-T" and
	   "-B" will reset it with the results of "stat _").  Example:

	       print "Can do.\n" if -r $a || -w _ || -x _;

	       stat($filename);
	       print "Readable\n" if -r _;
	       print "Writable\n" if -w _;
	       print "Executable\n" if -x _;
	       print "Setuid\n" if -u _;
	       print "Setgid\n" if -g _;
	       print "Sticky\n" if -k _;
	       print "Text\n" if -T _;
	       print "Binary\n" if -B _;

	   As of Perl 5.10.0, as a form of purely syntactic sugar, you can
	   stack file test operators, in a way that "-f -w -x $file" is
	   equivalent to "-x $file && -w _ && -f _".  (This is only fancy
	   fancy: if you use the return value of "-f $file" as an argument to
	   another filetest operator, no special magic will happen.)

	   Portability issues: "-X" in perlport.

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code with mysterious
	   syntax errors, put something like this at the top of your script:

	       use 5.010;  # so filetest ops can stack

       abs VALUE
       abs Returns the absolute value of its argument.	If VALUE is omitted,
	   uses $_.

       accept NEWSOCKET,GENERICSOCKET
	   Accepts an incoming socket connect, just as accept(2) does.
	   Returns the packed address if it succeeded, false otherwise.	 See
	   the example in "Sockets: Client/Server Communication" in perlipc.

	   On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag
	   will be set for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by
	   the value of $^F.  See "$^F" in perlvar.

       alarm SECONDS
       alarm
	   Arranges to have a SIGALRM delivered to this process after the
	   specified number of wallclock seconds has elapsed.  If SECONDS is
	   not specified, the value stored in $_ is used.  (On some machines,
	   unfortunately, the elapsed time may be up to one second less or
	   more than you specified because of how seconds are counted, and
	   process scheduling may delay the delivery of the signal even
	   further.)

	   Only one timer may be counting at once.  Each call disables the
	   previous timer, and an argument of 0 may be supplied to cancel the
	   previous timer without starting a new one.  The returned value is
	   the amount of time remaining on the previous timer.

	   For delays of finer granularity than one second, the Time::HiRes
	   module (from CPAN, and starting from Perl 5.8 part of the standard
	   distribution) provides ualarm().  You may also use Perl's four-
	   argument version of select() leaving the first three arguments
	   undefined, or you might be able to use the "syscall" interface to
	   access setitimer(2) if your system supports it.  See perlfaq8 for
	   details.

	   It is usually a mistake to intermix "alarm" and "sleep" calls,
	   because "sleep" may be internally implemented on your system with
	   "alarm".

	   If you want to use "alarm" to time out a system call you need to
	   use an "eval"/"die" pair.  You can't rely on the alarm causing the
	   system call to fail with $! set to "EINTR" because Perl sets up
	   signal handlers to restart system calls on some systems.  Using
	   "eval"/"die" always works, modulo the caveats given in "Signals" in
	   perlipc.

	       eval {
		   local $SIG{ALRM} = sub { die "alarm\n" }; # NB: \n required
		   alarm $timeout;
		   $nread = sysread SOCKET, $buffer, $size;
		   alarm 0;
	       };
	       if ($@) {
		   die unless $@ eq "alarm\n";	 # propagate unexpected errors
		   # timed out
	       }
	       else {
		   # didn't
	       }

	   For more information see perlipc.

	   Portability issues: "alarm" in perlport.

       atan2 Y,X
	   Returns the arctangent of Y/X in the range -PI to PI.

	   For the tangent operation, you may use the "Math::Trig::tan"
	   function, or use the familiar relation:

	       sub tan { sin($_[0]) / cos($_[0])  }

	   The return value for "atan2(0,0)" is implementation-defined;
	   consult your atan2(3) manpage for more information.

	   Portability issues: "atan2" in perlport.

       bind SOCKET,NAME
	   Binds a network address to a socket, just as bind(2) does.  Returns
	   true if it succeeded, false otherwise.  NAME should be a packed
	   address of the appropriate type for the socket.  See the examples
	   in "Sockets: Client/Server Communication" in perlipc.

       binmode FILEHANDLE, LAYER
       binmode FILEHANDLE
	   Arranges for FILEHANDLE to be read or written in "binary" or "text"
	   mode on systems where the run-time libraries distinguish between
	   binary and text files.  If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value
	   is taken as the name of the filehandle.  Returns true on success,
	   otherwise it returns "undef" and sets $! (errno).

	   On some systems (in general, DOS- and Windows-based systems)
	   binmode() is necessary when you're not working with a text file.
	   For the sake of portability it is a good idea always to use it when
	   appropriate, and never to use it when it isn't appropriate.	Also,
	   people can set their I/O to be by default UTF8-encoded Unicode, not
	   bytes.

	   In other words: regardless of platform, use binmode() on binary
	   data, like images, for example.

	   If LAYER is present it is a single string, but may contain multiple
	   directives.	The directives alter the behaviour of the filehandle.
	   When LAYER is present, using binmode on a text file makes sense.

	   If LAYER is omitted or specified as ":raw" the filehandle is made
	   suitable for passing binary data.  This includes turning off
	   possible CRLF translation and marking it as bytes (as opposed to
	   Unicode characters).	 Note that, despite what may be implied in
	   "Programming Perl" (the Camel, 3rd edition) or elsewhere, ":raw" is
	   not simply the inverse of ":crlf".  Other layers that would affect
	   the binary nature of the stream are also disabled.  See PerlIO,
	   perlrun, and the discussion about the PERLIO environment variable.

	   The ":bytes", ":crlf", ":utf8", and any other directives of the
	   form ":...", are called I/O layers.	The "open" pragma can be used
	   to establish default I/O layers.  See open.

	   The LAYER parameter of the binmode() function is described as
	   "DISCIPLINE" in "Programming Perl, 3rd Edition".  However, since
	   the publishing of this book, by many known as "Camel III", the
	   consensus of the naming of this functionality has moved from
	   "discipline" to "layer".  All documentation of this version of Perl
	   therefore refers to "layers" rather than to "disciplines".  Now
	   back to the regularly scheduled documentation...

	   To mark FILEHANDLE as UTF-8, use ":utf8" or ":encoding(UTF-8)".
	   ":utf8" just marks the data as UTF-8 without further checking,
	   while ":encoding(UTF-8)" checks the data for actually being valid
	   UTF-8.  More details can be found in PerlIO::encoding.

	   In general, binmode() should be called after open() but before any
	   I/O is done on the filehandle.  Calling binmode() normally flushes
	   any pending buffered output data (and perhaps pending input data)
	   on the handle.  An exception to this is the ":encoding" layer that
	   changes the default character encoding of the handle; see "open".
	   The ":encoding" layer sometimes needs to be called in mid-stream,
	   and it doesn't flush the stream.  The ":encoding" also implicitly
	   pushes on top of itself the ":utf8" layer because internally Perl
	   operates on UTF8-encoded Unicode characters.

	   The operating system, device drivers, C libraries, and Perl run-
	   time system all conspire to let the programmer treat a single
	   character ("\n") as the line terminator, irrespective of external
	   representation.  On many operating systems, the native text file
	   representation matches the internal representation, but on some
	   platforms the external representation of "\n" is made up of more
	   than one character.

	   All variants of Unix, Mac OS (old and new), and Stream_LF files on
	   VMS use a single character to end each line in the external
	   representation of text (even though that single character is
	   CARRIAGE RETURN on old, pre-Darwin flavors of Mac OS, and is LINE
	   FEED on Unix and most VMS files).  In other systems like OS/2, DOS,
	   and the various flavors of MS-Windows, your program sees a "\n" as
	   a simple "\cJ", but what's stored in text files are the two
	   characters "\cM\cJ".	 That means that if you don't use binmode() on
	   these systems, "\cM\cJ" sequences on disk will be converted to "\n"
	   on input, and any "\n" in your program will be converted back to
	   "\cM\cJ" on output.	This is what you want for text files, but it
	   can be disastrous for binary files.

	   Another consequence of using binmode() (on some systems) is that
	   special end-of-file markers will be seen as part of the data
	   stream.  For systems from the Microsoft family this means that, if
	   your binary data contain "\cZ", the I/O subsystem will regard it as
	   the end of the file, unless you use binmode().

	   binmode() is important not only for readline() and print()
	   operations, but also when using read(), seek(), sysread(),
	   syswrite() and tell() (see perlport for more details).  See the $/
	   and "$\" variables in perlvar for how to manually set your input
	   and output line-termination sequences.

	   Portability issues: "binmode" in perlport.

       bless REF,CLASSNAME
       bless REF
	   This function tells the thingy referenced by REF that it is now an
	   object in the CLASSNAME package.  If CLASSNAME is omitted, the
	   current package is used.  Because a "bless" is often the last thing
	   in a constructor, it returns the reference for convenience.	Always
	   use the two-argument version if a derived class might inherit the
	   function doing the blessing.	 See perlobj for more about the
	   blessing (and blessings) of objects.

	   Consider always blessing objects in CLASSNAMEs that are mixed case.
	   Namespaces with all lowercase names are considered reserved for
	   Perl pragmata.  Builtin types have all uppercase names.  To prevent
	   confusion, you may wish to avoid such package names as well.	 Make
	   sure that CLASSNAME is a true value.

	   See "Perl Modules" in perlmod.

       break
	   Break out of a "given()" block.

	   This keyword is enabled by the "switch" feature; see feature for
	   more information on "switch".  You can also access it by prefixing
	   it with "CORE::".  Alternatively, include a "use v5.10" or later to
	   the current scope.

       caller EXPR
       caller
	   Returns the context of the current subroutine call.	In scalar
	   context, returns the caller's package name if there is a caller
	   (that is, if we're in a subroutine or "eval" or "require") and the
	   undefined value otherwise.  In list context, returns

	       # 0	   1	      2
	       ($package, $filename, $line) = caller;

	   With EXPR, it returns some extra information that the debugger uses
	   to print a stack trace.  The value of EXPR indicates how many call
	   frames to go back before the current one.

	       #  0	    1	       2      3		   4
	       ($package, $filename, $line, $subroutine, $hasargs,

	       #  5	     6		7	     8	     9	       10
	       $wantarray, $evaltext, $is_require, $hints, $bitmask, $hinthash)
		= caller($i);

	   Here $subroutine may be "(eval)" if the frame is not a subroutine
	   call, but an "eval".	 In such a case additional elements $evaltext
	   and $is_require are set: $is_require is true if the frame is
	   created by a "require" or "use" statement, $evaltext contains the
	   text of the "eval EXPR" statement.  In particular, for an "eval
	   BLOCK" statement, $subroutine is "(eval)", but $evaltext is
	   undefined.  (Note also that each "use" statement creates a
	   "require" frame inside an "eval EXPR" frame.)  $subroutine may also
	   be "(unknown)" if this particular subroutine happens to have been
	   deleted from the symbol table.  $hasargs is true if a new instance
	   of @_ was set up for the frame.  $hints and $bitmask contain
	   pragmatic hints that the caller was compiled with.  $hints
	   corresponds to $^H, and $bitmask corresponds to "${^WARNING_BITS}".
	   The $hints and $bitmask values are subject to change between
	   versions of Perl, and are not meant for external use.

	   $hinthash is a reference to a hash containing the value of "%^H"
	   when the caller was compiled, or "undef" if "%^H" was empty.	 Do
	   not modify the values of this hash, as they are the actual values
	   stored in the optree.

	   Furthermore, when called from within the DB package in list
	   context, and with an argument, caller returns more detailed
	   information: it sets the list variable @DB::args to be the
	   arguments with which the subroutine was invoked.

	   Be aware that the optimizer might have optimized call frames away
	   before "caller" had a chance to get the information.	 That means
	   that caller(N) might not return information about the call frame
	   you expect it to, for "N > 1".  In particular, @DB::args might have
	   information from the previous time "caller" was called.

	   Be aware that setting @DB::args is best effort, intended for
	   debugging or generating backtraces, and should not be relied upon.
	   In particular, as @_ contains aliases to the caller's arguments,
	   Perl does not take a copy of @_, so @DB::args will contain
	   modifications the subroutine makes to @_ or its contents, not the
	   original values at call time.  @DB::args, like @_, does not hold
	   explicit references to its elements, so under certain cases its
	   elements may have become freed and reallocated for other variables
	   or temporary values.	 Finally, a side effect of the current
	   implementation is that the effects of "shift @_" can normally be
	   undone (but not "pop @_" or other splicing, and not if a reference
	   to @_ has been taken, and subject to the caveat about reallocated
	   elements), so @DB::args is actually a hybrid of the current state
	   and initial state of @_.  Buyer beware.

       chdir EXPR
       chdir FILEHANDLE
       chdir DIRHANDLE
       chdir
	   Changes the working directory to EXPR, if possible.	If EXPR is
	   omitted, changes to the directory specified by $ENV{HOME}, if set;
	   if not, changes to the directory specified by $ENV{LOGDIR}.	(Under
	   VMS, the variable $ENV{SYS$LOGIN} is also checked, and used if it
	   is set.)  If neither is set, "chdir" does nothing.  It returns true
	   on success, false otherwise.	 See the example under "die".

	   On systems that support fchdir(2), you may pass a filehandle or
	   directory handle as the argument.  On systems that don't support
	   fchdir(2), passing handles raises an exception.

       chmod LIST
	   Changes the permissions of a list of files.	The first element of
	   the list must be the numeric mode, which should probably be an
	   octal number, and which definitely should not be a string of octal
	   digits: 0644 is okay, but "0644" is not.  Returns the number of
	   files successfully changed.	See also "oct" if all you have is a
	   string.

	       $cnt = chmod 0755, "foo", "bar";
	       chmod 0755, @executables;
	       $mode = "0644"; chmod $mode, "foo";	# !!! sets mode to
							# --w----r-T
	       $mode = "0644"; chmod oct($mode), "foo"; # this is better
	       $mode = 0644;   chmod $mode, "foo";	# this is best

	   On systems that support fchmod(2), you may pass filehandles among
	   the files.  On systems that don't support fchmod(2), passing
	   filehandles raises an exception.  Filehandles must be passed as
	   globs or glob references to be recognized; barewords are considered
	   filenames.

	       open(my $fh, "<", "foo");
	       my $perm = (stat $fh)[2] & 07777;
	       chmod($perm | 0600, $fh);

	   You can also import the symbolic "S_I*" constants from the "Fcntl"
	   module:

	       use Fcntl qw( :mode );
	       chmod S_IRWXU|S_IRGRP|S_IXGRP|S_IROTH|S_IXOTH, @executables;
	       # Identical to the chmod 0755 of the example above.

	   Portability issues: "chmod" in perlport.

       chomp VARIABLE
       chomp( LIST )
       chomp
	   This safer version of "chop" removes any trailing string that
	   corresponds to the current value of $/ (also known as
	   $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR in the "English" module).  It returns the
	   total number of characters removed from all its arguments.  It's
	   often used to remove the newline from the end of an input record
	   when you're worried that the final record may be missing its
	   newline.  When in paragraph mode ("$/ = """), it removes all
	   trailing newlines from the string.  When in slurp mode ("$/ =
	   undef") or fixed-length record mode ($/ is a reference to an
	   integer or the like; see perlvar) chomp() won't remove anything.
	   If VARIABLE is omitted, it chomps $_.  Example:

	       while (<>) {
		   chomp;  # avoid \n on last field
		   @array = split(/:/);
		   # ...
	       }

	   If VARIABLE is a hash, it chomps the hash's values, but not its
	   keys.

	   You can actually chomp anything that's an lvalue, including an
	   assignment:

	       chomp($cwd = `pwd`);
	       chomp($answer = <STDIN>);

	   If you chomp a list, each element is chomped, and the total number
	   of characters removed is returned.

	   Note that parentheses are necessary when you're chomping anything
	   that is not a simple variable.  This is because "chomp $cwd =
	   `pwd`;" is interpreted as "(chomp $cwd) = `pwd`;", rather than as
	   "chomp( $cwd = `pwd` )" which you might expect.  Similarly, "chomp
	   $a, $b" is interpreted as "chomp($a), $b" rather than as "chomp($a,
	   $b)".

       chop VARIABLE
       chop( LIST )
       chop
	   Chops off the last character of a string and returns the character
	   chopped.  It is much more efficient than "s/.$//s" because it
	   neither scans nor copies the string.	 If VARIABLE is omitted, chops
	   $_.	If VARIABLE is a hash, it chops the hash's values, but not its
	   keys.

	   You can actually chop anything that's an lvalue, including an
	   assignment.

	   If you chop a list, each element is chopped.	 Only the value of the
	   last "chop" is returned.

	   Note that "chop" returns the last character.	 To return all but the
	   last character, use "substr($string, 0, -1)".

	   See also "chomp".

       chown LIST
	   Changes the owner (and group) of a list of files.  The first two
	   elements of the list must be the numeric uid and gid, in that
	   order.  A value of -1 in either position is interpreted by most
	   systems to leave that value unchanged.  Returns the number of files
	   successfully changed.

	       $cnt = chown $uid, $gid, 'foo', 'bar';
	       chown $uid, $gid, @filenames;

	   On systems that support fchown(2), you may pass filehandles among
	   the files.  On systems that don't support fchown(2), passing
	   filehandles raises an exception.  Filehandles must be passed as
	   globs or glob references to be recognized; barewords are considered
	   filenames.

	   Here's an example that looks up nonnumeric uids in the passwd file:

	       print "User: ";
	       chomp($user = <STDIN>);
	       print "Files: ";
	       chomp($pattern = <STDIN>);

	       ($login,$pass,$uid,$gid) = getpwnam($user)
		   or die "$user not in passwd file";

	       @ary = glob($pattern);  # expand filenames
	       chown $uid, $gid, @ary;

	   On most systems, you are not allowed to change the ownership of the
	   file unless you're the superuser, although you should be able to
	   change the group to any of your secondary groups.  On insecure
	   systems, these restrictions may be relaxed, but this is not a
	   portable assumption.	 On POSIX systems, you can detect this
	   condition this way:

	       use POSIX qw(sysconf _PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED);
	       $can_chown_giveaway = not sysconf(_PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED);

	   Portability issues: "chmod" in perlport.

       chr NUMBER
       chr Returns the character represented by that NUMBER in the character
	   set.	 For example, "chr(65)" is "A" in either ASCII or Unicode, and
	   chr(0x263a) is a Unicode smiley face.

	   Negative values give the Unicode replacement character
	   (chr(0xfffd)), except under the bytes pragma, where the low eight
	   bits of the value (truncated to an integer) are used.

	   If NUMBER is omitted, uses $_.

	   For the reverse, use "ord".

	   Note that characters from 128 to 255 (inclusive) are by default
	   internally not encoded as UTF-8 for backward compatibility reasons.

	   See perlunicode for more about Unicode.

       chroot FILENAME
       chroot
	   This function works like the system call by the same name: it makes
	   the named directory the new root directory for all further
	   pathnames that begin with a "/" by your process and all its
	   children.  (It doesn't change your current working directory, which
	   is unaffected.)  For security reasons, this call is restricted to
	   the superuser.  If FILENAME is omitted, does a "chroot" to $_.

	   Portability issues: "chroot" in perlport.

       close FILEHANDLE
       close
	   Closes the file or pipe associated with the filehandle, flushes the
	   IO buffers, and closes the system file descriptor.  Returns true if
	   those operations succeed and if no error was reported by any PerlIO
	   layer.  Closes the currently selected filehandle if the argument is
	   omitted.

	   You don't have to close FILEHANDLE if you are immediately going to
	   do another "open" on it, because "open" closes it for you.  (See
	   open.)  However, an explicit "close" on an input file resets the
	   line counter ($.), while the implicit close done by "open" does
	   not.

	   If the filehandle came from a piped open, "close" returns false if
	   one of the other syscalls involved fails or if its program exits
	   with non-zero status.  If the only problem was that the program
	   exited non-zero, $!	will be set to 0.  Closing a pipe also waits
	   for the process executing on the pipe to exit--in case you wish to
	   look at the output of the pipe afterwards--and implicitly puts the
	   exit status value of that command into $? and
	   "${^CHILD_ERROR_NATIVE}".

	   If there are multiple threads running, "close" on a filehandle from
	   a piped open returns true without waiting for the child process to
	   terminate, if the filehandle is still open in another thread.

	   Closing the read end of a pipe before the process writing to it at
	   the other end is done writing results in the writer receiving a
	   SIGPIPE.  If the other end can't handle that, be sure to read all
	   the data before closing the pipe.

	   Example:

	       open(OUTPUT, '|sort >foo')  # pipe to sort
		   or die "Can't start sort: $!";
	       #...			   # print stuff to output
	       close OUTPUT		   # wait for sort to finish
		   or warn $! ? "Error closing sort pipe: $!"
			      : "Exit status $? from sort";
	       open(INPUT, 'foo')	   # get sort's results
		   or die "Can't open 'foo' for input: $!";

	   FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an
	   indirect filehandle, usually the real filehandle name or an
	   autovivified handle.

       closedir DIRHANDLE
	   Closes a directory opened by "opendir" and returns the success of
	   that system call.

       connect SOCKET,NAME
	   Attempts to connect to a remote socket, just like connect(2).
	   Returns true if it succeeded, false otherwise.  NAME should be a
	   packed address of the appropriate type for the socket.  See the
	   examples in "Sockets: Client/Server Communication" in perlipc.

       continue BLOCK
       continue
	   When followed by a BLOCK, "continue" is actually a flow control
	   statement rather than a function.  If there is a "continue" BLOCK
	   attached to a BLOCK (typically in a "while" or "foreach"), it is
	   always executed just before the conditional is about to be
	   evaluated again, just like the third part of a "for" loop in C.
	   Thus it can be used to increment a loop variable, even when the
	   loop has been continued via the "next" statement (which is similar
	   to the C "continue" statement).

	   "last", "next", or "redo" may appear within a "continue" block;
	   "last" and "redo" behave as if they had been executed within the
	   main block.	So will "next", but since it will execute a "continue"
	   block, it may be more entertaining.

	       while (EXPR) {
		   ### redo always comes here
		   do_something;
	       } continue {
		   ### next always comes here
		   do_something_else;
		   # then back the top to re-check EXPR
	       }
	       ### last always comes here

	   Omitting the "continue" section is equivalent to using an empty
	   one, logically enough, so "next" goes directly back to check the
	   condition at the top of the loop.

	   When there is no BLOCK, "continue" is a function that falls through
	   the current "when" or "default" block instead of iterating a
	   dynamically enclosing "foreach" or exiting a lexically enclosing
	   "given".  In Perl 5.14 and earlier, this form of "continue" was
	   only available when the "switch" feature was enabled.  See feature
	   and "Switch Statements" in perlsyn for more information.

       cos EXPR
       cos Returns the cosine of EXPR (expressed in radians).  If EXPR is
	   omitted, takes the cosine of $_.

	   For the inverse cosine operation, you may use the
	   "Math::Trig::acos()" function, or use this relation:

	       sub acos { atan2( sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0]), $_[0] ) }

       crypt PLAINTEXT,SALT
	   Creates a digest string exactly like the crypt(3) function in the C
	   library (assuming that you actually have a version there that has
	   not been extirpated as a potential munition).

	   crypt() is a one-way hash function.	The PLAINTEXT and SALT are
	   turned into a short string, called a digest, which is returned.
	   The same PLAINTEXT and SALT will always return the same string, but
	   there is no (known) way to get the original PLAINTEXT from the
	   hash.  Small changes in the PLAINTEXT or SALT will result in large
	   changes in the digest.

	   There is no decrypt function.  This function isn't all that useful
	   for cryptography (for that, look for Crypt modules on your nearby
	   CPAN mirror) and the name "crypt" is a bit of a misnomer.  Instead
	   it is primarily used to check if two pieces of text are the same
	   without having to transmit or store the text itself.	 An example is
	   checking if a correct password is given.  The digest of the
	   password is stored, not the password itself.	 The user types in a
	   password that is crypt()'d with the same salt as the stored digest.
	   If the two digests match, the password is correct.

	   When verifying an existing digest string you should use the digest
	   as the salt (like "crypt($plain, $digest) eq $digest").  The SALT
	   used to create the digest is visible as part of the digest.	This
	   ensures crypt() will hash the new string with the same salt as the
	   digest.  This allows your code to work with the standard crypt and
	   with more exotic implementations.  In other words, assume nothing
	   about the returned string itself nor about how many bytes of SALT
	   may matter.

	   Traditionally the result is a string of 13 bytes: two first bytes
	   of the salt, followed by 11 bytes from the set "[./0-9A-Za-z]", and
	   only the first eight bytes of PLAINTEXT mattered.  But alternative
	   hashing schemes (like MD5), higher level security schemes (like
	   C2), and implementations on non-Unix platforms may produce
	   different strings.

	   When choosing a new salt create a random two character string whose
	   characters come from the set "[./0-9A-Za-z]" (like "join '', ('.',
	   '/', 0..9, 'A'..'Z', 'a'..'z')[rand 64, rand 64]").	This set of
	   characters is just a recommendation; the characters allowed in the
	   salt depend solely on your system's crypt library, and Perl can't
	   restrict what salts "crypt()" accepts.

	   Here's an example that makes sure that whoever runs this program
	   knows their password:

	       $pwd = (getpwuid($<))[1];

	       system "stty -echo";
	       print "Password: ";
	       chomp($word = <STDIN>);
	       print "\n";
	       system "stty echo";

	       if (crypt($word, $pwd) ne $pwd) {
		   die "Sorry...\n";
	       } else {
		   print "ok\n";
	       }

	   Of course, typing in your own password to whoever asks you for it
	   is unwise.

	   The crypt function is unsuitable for hashing large quantities of
	   data, not least of all because you can't get the information back.
	   Look at the Digest module for more robust algorithms.

	   If using crypt() on a Unicode string (which potentially has
	   characters with codepoints above 255), Perl tries to make sense of
	   the situation by trying to downgrade (a copy of) the string back to
	   an eight-bit byte string before calling crypt() (on that copy).  If
	   that works, good.  If not, crypt() dies with "Wide character in
	   crypt".

	   Portability issues: "crypt" in perlport.

       dbmclose HASH
	   [This function has been largely superseded by the "untie"
	   function.]

	   Breaks the binding between a DBM file and a hash.

	   Portability issues: "dbmclose" in perlport.

       dbmopen HASH,DBNAME,MASK
	   [This function has been largely superseded by the tie function.]

	   This binds a dbm(3), ndbm(3), sdbm(3), gdbm(3), or Berkeley DB file
	   to a hash.  HASH is the name of the hash.  (Unlike normal "open",
	   the first argument is not a filehandle, even though it looks like
	   one).  DBNAME is the name of the database (without the .dir or .pag
	   extension if any).  If the database does not exist, it is created
	   with protection specified by MASK (as modified by the "umask").  To
	   prevent creation of the database if it doesn't exist, you may
	   specify a MODE of 0, and the function will return a false value if
	   it can't find an existing database.	If your system supports only
	   the older DBM functions, you may make only one "dbmopen" call in
	   your program.  In older versions of Perl, if your system had
	   neither DBM nor ndbm, calling "dbmopen" produced a fatal error; it
	   now falls back to sdbm(3).

	   If you don't have write access to the DBM file, you can only read
	   hash variables, not set them.  If you want to test whether you can
	   write, either use file tests or try setting a dummy hash entry
	   inside an "eval" to trap the error.

	   Note that functions such as "keys" and "values" may return huge
	   lists when used on large DBM files.	You may prefer to use the
	   "each" function to iterate over large DBM files.  Example:

	       # print out history file offsets
	       dbmopen(%HIST,'/usr/lib/news/history',0666);
	       while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
		   print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
	       }
	       dbmclose(%HIST);

	   See also AnyDBM_File for a more general description of the pros and
	   cons of the various dbm approaches, as well as DB_File for a
	   particularly rich implementation.

	   You can control which DBM library you use by loading that library
	   before you call dbmopen():

	       use DB_File;
	       dbmopen(%NS_Hist, "$ENV{HOME}/.netscape/history.db")
		   or die "Can't open netscape history file: $!";

	   Portability issues: "dbmopen" in perlport.

       defined EXPR
       defined
	   Returns a Boolean value telling whether EXPR has a value other than
	   the undefined value "undef".	 If EXPR is not present, $_ is
	   checked.

	   Many operations return "undef" to indicate failure, end of file,
	   system error, uninitialized variable, and other exceptional
	   conditions.	This function allows you to distinguish "undef" from
	   other values.  (A simple Boolean test will not distinguish among
	   "undef", zero, the empty string, and "0", which are all equally
	   false.)  Note that since "undef" is a valid scalar, its presence
	   doesn't necessarily indicate an exceptional condition: "pop"
	   returns "undef" when its argument is an empty array, or when the
	   element to return happens to be "undef".

	   You may also use "defined(&func)" to check whether subroutine &func
	   has ever been defined.  The return value is unaffected by any
	   forward declarations of &func.  A subroutine that is not defined
	   may still be callable: its package may have an "AUTOLOAD" method
	   that makes it spring into existence the first time that it is
	   called; see perlsub.

	   Use of "defined" on aggregates (hashes and arrays) is deprecated.
	   It used to report whether memory for that aggregate had ever been
	   allocated.  This behavior may disappear in future versions of Perl.
	   You should instead use a simple test for size:

	       if (@an_array) { print "has array elements\n" }
	       if (%a_hash)   { print "has hash members\n"   }

	   When used on a hash element, it tells you whether the value is
	   defined, not whether the key exists in the hash.  Use "exists" for
	   the latter purpose.

	   Examples:

	       print if defined $switch{D};
	       print "$val\n" while defined($val = pop(@ary));
	       die "Can't readlink $sym: $!"
		   unless defined($value = readlink $sym);
	       sub foo { defined &$bar ? &$bar(@_) : die "No bar"; }
	       $debugging = 0 unless defined $debugging;

	   Note:  Many folks tend to overuse "defined" and are then surprised
	   to discover that the number 0 and "" (the zero-length string) are,
	   in fact, defined values.  For example, if you say

	       "ab" =~ /a(.*)b/;

	   The pattern match succeeds and $1 is defined, although it matched
	   "nothing".  It didn't really fail to match anything.	 Rather, it
	   matched something that happened to be zero characters long.	This
	   is all very above-board and honest.	When a function returns an
	   undefined value, it's an admission that it couldn't give you an
	   honest answer.  So you should use "defined" only when questioning
	   the integrity of what you're trying to do.  At other times, a
	   simple comparison to 0 or "" is what you want.

	   See also "undef", "exists", "ref".

       delete EXPR
	   Given an expression that specifies an element or slice of a hash,
	   "delete" deletes the specified elements from that hash so that
	   exists() on that element no longer returns true.  Setting a hash
	   element to the undefined value does not remove its key, but
	   deleting it does; see "exists".

	   In list context, returns the value or values deleted, or the last
	   such element in scalar context.  The return list's length always
	   matches that of the argument list: deleting non-existent elements
	   returns the undefined value in their corresponding positions.

	   delete() may also be used on arrays and array slices, but its
	   behavior is less straightforward.  Although exists() will return
	   false for deleted entries, deleting array elements never changes
	   indices of existing values; use shift() or splice() for that.
	   However, if all deleted elements fall at the end of an array, the
	   array's size shrinks to the position of the highest element that
	   still tests true for exists(), or to 0 if none do.

	   WARNING: Calling delete on array values is deprecated and likely to
	   be removed in a future version of Perl.

	   Deleting from %ENV modifies the environment.	 Deleting from a hash
	   tied to a DBM file deletes the entry from the DBM file.  Deleting
	   from a "tied" hash or array may not necessarily return anything; it
	   depends on the implementation of the "tied" package's DELETE
	   method, which may do whatever it pleases.

	   The "delete local EXPR" construct localizes the deletion to the
	   current block at run time.  Until the block exits, elements locally
	   deleted temporarily no longer exist.	 See "Localized deletion of
	   elements of composite types" in perlsub.

	       %hash = (foo => 11, bar => 22, baz => 33);
	       $scalar = delete $hash{foo};	    # $scalar is 11
	       $scalar = delete @hash{qw(foo bar)}; # $scalar is 22
	       @array  = delete @hash{qw(foo baz)}; # @array  is (undef,33)

	   The following (inefficiently) deletes all the values of %HASH and
	   @ARRAY:

	       foreach $key (keys %HASH) {
		   delete $HASH{$key};
	       }

	       foreach $index (0 .. $#ARRAY) {
		   delete $ARRAY[$index];
	       }

	   And so do these:

	       delete @HASH{keys %HASH};

	       delete @ARRAY[0 .. $#ARRAY];

	   But both are slower than assigning the empty list or undefining
	   %HASH or @ARRAY, which is the customary way to empty out an
	   aggregate:

	       %HASH = ();     # completely empty %HASH
	       undef %HASH;    # forget %HASH ever existed

	       @ARRAY = ();    # completely empty @ARRAY
	       undef @ARRAY;   # forget @ARRAY ever existed

	   The EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated provided its final
	   operation is an element or slice of an aggregate:

	       delete $ref->[$x][$y]{$key};
	       delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}{$key1, $key2, @morekeys};

	       delete $ref->[$x][$y][$index];
	       delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}[$index1, $index2, @moreindices];

       die LIST
	   "die" raises an exception.  Inside an "eval" the error message is
	   stuffed into $@ and the "eval" is terminated with the undefined
	   value.  If the exception is outside of all enclosing "eval"s, then
	   the uncaught exception prints LIST to "STDERR" and exits with a
	   non-zero value.  If you need to exit the process with a specific
	   exit code, see "exit".

	   Equivalent examples:

	       die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n" unless chdir '/usr/spool/news';
	       chdir '/usr/spool/news' or die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n"

	   If the last element of LIST does not end in a newline, the current
	   script line number and input line number (if any) are also printed,
	   and a newline is supplied.  Note that the "input line number" (also
	   known as "chunk") is subject to whatever notion of "line" happens
	   to be currently in effect, and is also available as the special
	   variable $..	 See "$/" in perlvar and "$." in perlvar.

	   Hint: sometimes appending ", stopped" to your message will cause it
	   to make better sense when the string "at foo line 123" is appended.
	   Suppose you are running script "canasta".

	       die "/etc/games is no good";
	       die "/etc/games is no good, stopped";

	   produce, respectively

	       /etc/games is no good at canasta line 123.
	       /etc/games is no good, stopped at canasta line 123.

	   If the output is empty and $@ already contains a value (typically
	   from a previous eval) that value is reused after appending
	   "\t...propagated".  This is useful for propagating exceptions:

	       eval { ... };
	       die unless $@ =~ /Expected exception/;

	   If the output is empty and $@ contains an object reference that has
	   a "PROPAGATE" method, that method will be called with additional
	   file and line number parameters.  The return value replaces the
	   value in $@;	 i.e., as if "$@ = eval { $@->PROPAGATE(__FILE__,
	   __LINE__) };" were called.

	   If $@ is empty then the string "Died" is used.

	   If an uncaught exception results in interpreter exit, the exit code
	   is determined from the values of $! and $? with this pseudocode:

	       exit $! if $!;		   # errno
	       exit $? >> 8 if $? >> 8;	   # child exit status
	       exit 255;		   # last resort

	   The intent is to squeeze as much possible information about the
	   likely cause into the limited space of the system exit code.
	   However, as $! is the value of C's "errno", which can be set by any
	   system call, this means that the value of the exit code used by
	   "die" can be non-predictable, so should not be relied upon, other
	   than to be non-zero.

	   You can also call "die" with a reference argument, and if this is
	   trapped within an "eval", $@ contains that reference.  This permits
	   more elaborate exception handling using objects that maintain
	   arbitrary state about the exception.	 Such a scheme is sometimes
	   preferable to matching particular string values of $@ with regular
	   expressions.	 Because $@ is a global variable and "eval" may be
	   used within object implementations, be careful that analyzing the
	   error object doesn't replace the reference in the global variable.
	   It's easiest to make a local copy of the reference before any
	   manipulations.  Here's an example:

	       use Scalar::Util "blessed";

	       eval { ... ; die Some::Module::Exception->new( FOO => "bar" ) };
	       if (my $ev_err = $@) {
		   if (blessed($ev_err)
		       && $ev_err->isa("Some::Module::Exception")) {
		       # handle Some::Module::Exception
		   }
		   else {
		       # handle all other possible exceptions
		   }
	       }

	   Because Perl stringifies uncaught exception messages before
	   display, you'll probably want to overload stringification
	   operations on exception objects.  See overload for details about
	   that.

	   You can arrange for a callback to be run just before the "die" does
	   its deed, by setting the $SIG{__DIE__} hook.	 The associated
	   handler is called with the error text and can change the error
	   message, if it sees fit, by calling "die" again.  See "%SIG" in
	   perlvar for details on setting %SIG entries, and "eval BLOCK" for
	   some examples.  Although this feature was to be run only right
	   before your program was to exit, this is not currently so: the
	   $SIG{__DIE__} hook is currently called even inside eval()ed
	   blocks/strings!  If one wants the hook to do nothing in such
	   situations, put

	       die @_ if $^S;

	   as the first line of the handler (see "$^S" in perlvar).  Because
	   this promotes strange action at a distance, this counterintuitive
	   behavior may be fixed in a future release.

	   See also exit(), warn(), and the Carp module.

       do BLOCK
	   Not really a function.  Returns the value of the last command in
	   the sequence of commands indicated by BLOCK.	 When modified by the
	   "while" or "until" loop modifier, executes the BLOCK once before
	   testing the loop condition.	(On other statements the loop
	   modifiers test the conditional first.)

	   "do BLOCK" does not count as a loop, so the loop control statements
	   "next", "last", or "redo" cannot be used to leave or restart the
	   block.  See perlsyn for alternative strategies.

       do SUBROUTINE(LIST)
	   This form of subroutine call is deprecated.	SUBROUTINE can be a
	   bareword or scalar variable.

       do EXPR
	   Uses the value of EXPR as a filename and executes the contents of
	   the file as a Perl script.

	       do 'stat.pl';

	   is largely like

	       eval `cat stat.pl`;

	   except that it's more concise, runs no external processes, keeps
	   track of the current filename for error messages, searches the @INC
	   directories, and updates %INC if the file is found.	See "@INC" in
	   perlvar and "%INC" in perlvar for these variables.  It also differs
	   in that code evaluated with "do FILENAME" cannot see lexicals in
	   the enclosing scope; "eval STRING" does.  It's the same, however,
	   in that it does reparse the file every time you call it, so you
	   probably don't want to do this inside a loop.

	   If "do" can read the file but cannot compile it, it returns "undef"
	   and sets an error message in $@.  If "do" cannot read the file, it
	   returns undef and sets $! to the error.  Always check $@ first, as
	   compilation could fail in a way that also sets $!.  If the file is
	   successfully compiled, "do" returns the value of the last
	   expression evaluated.

	   Inclusion of library modules is better done with the "use" and
	   "require" operators, which also do automatic error checking and
	   raise an exception if there's a problem.

	   You might like to use "do" to read in a program configuration file.
	   Manual error checking can be done this way:

	       # read in config files: system first, then user
	       for $file ("/share/prog/defaults.rc",
			  "$ENV{HOME}/.someprogrc")
	       {
		   unless ($return = do $file) {
		       warn "couldn't parse $file: $@" if $@;
		       warn "couldn't do $file: $!"    unless defined $return;
		       warn "couldn't run $file"       unless $return;
		   }
	       }

       dump LABEL
       dump EXPR
       dump
	   This function causes an immediate core dump.	 See also the -u
	   command-line switch in perlrun, which does the same thing.
	   Primarily this is so that you can use the undump program (not
	   supplied) to turn your core dump into an executable binary after
	   having initialized all your variables at the beginning of the
	   program.  When the new binary is executed it will begin by
	   executing a "goto LABEL" (with all the restrictions that "goto"
	   suffers).  Think of it as a goto with an intervening core dump and
	   reincarnation.  If "LABEL" is omitted, restarts the program from
	   the top.  The "dump EXPR" form, available starting in Perl 5.18.0,
	   allows a name to be computed at run time, being otherwise identical
	   to "dump LABEL".

	   WARNING: Any files opened at the time of the dump will not be open
	   any more when the program is reincarnated, with possible resulting
	   confusion by Perl.

	   This function is now largely obsolete, mostly because it's very
	   hard to convert a core file into an executable.  That's why you
	   should now invoke it as "CORE::dump()", if you don't want to be
	   warned against a possible typo.

	   Unlike most named operators, this has the same precedence as
	   assignment.	It is also exempt from the looks-like-a-function rule,
	   so "dump ("foo")."bar"" will cause "bar" to be part of the argument
	   to "dump".

	   Portability issues: "dump" in perlport.

       each HASH
       each ARRAY
       each EXPR
	   When called on a hash in list context, returns a 2-element list
	   consisting of the key and value for the next element of a hash.  In
	   Perl 5.12 and later only, it will also return the index and value
	   for the next element of an array so that you can iterate over it;
	   older Perls consider this a syntax error.  When called in scalar
	   context, returns only the key (not the value) in a hash, or the
	   index in an array.

	   Hash entries are returned in an apparently random order.  The
	   actual random order is specific to a given hash; the exact same
	   series of operations on two hashes may result in a different order
	   for each hash. Any insertion into the hash may change the order, as
	   will any deletion, with the exception that the most recent key
	   returned by "each" or "keys" may be deleted without changing the
	   order. So long as a given hash is unmodified you may rely on
	   "keys", "values" and "each" to repeatedly return the same order as
	   each other. See "Algorithmic Complexity Attacks" in perlsec for
	   details on why hash order is randomized. Aside from the guarantees
	   provided here the exact details of Perl's hash algorithm and the
	   hash traversal order are subject to change in any release of Perl.

	   After "each" has returned all entries from the hash or array, the
	   next call to "each" returns the empty list in list context and
	   "undef" in scalar context; the next call following that one
	   restarts iteration.	Each hash or array has its own internal
	   iterator, accessed by "each", "keys", and "values".	The iterator
	   is implicitly reset when "each" has reached the end as just
	   described; it can be explicitly reset by calling "keys" or "values"
	   on the hash or array.  If you add or delete a hash's elements while
	   iterating over it, entries may be skipped or duplicated--so don't
	   do that.  Exception: In the current implementation, it is always
	   safe to delete the item most recently returned by "each()", so the
	   following code works properly:

		   while (($key, $value) = each %hash) {
		     print $key, "\n";
		     delete $hash{$key};   # This is safe
		   }

	   This prints out your environment like the printenv(1) program, but
	   in a different order:

	       while (($key,$value) = each %ENV) {
		   print "$key=$value\n";
	       }

	   Starting with Perl 5.14, "each" can take a scalar EXPR, which must
	   hold reference to an unblessed hash or array.  The argument will be
	   dereferenced automatically.	This aspect of "each" is considered
	   highly experimental.	 The exact behaviour may change in a future
	   version of Perl.

	       while (($key,$value) = each $hashref) { ... }

	   As of Perl 5.18 you can use a bare "each" in a "while" loop, which
	   will set $_ on every iteration.

	       while(each %ENV) {
		   print "$_=$ENV{$_}\n";
	       }

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code who are running
	   earlier versions of Perl with mysterious syntax errors, put this
	   sort of thing at the top of your file to signal that your code will
	   work only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.012;  # so keys/values/each work on arrays
	       use 5.014;  # so keys/values/each work on scalars (experimental)
	       use 5.018;  # so each assigns to $_ in a lone while test

	   See also "keys", "values", and "sort".

       eof FILEHANDLE
       eof ()
       eof Returns 1 if the next read on FILEHANDLE will return end of file or
	   if FILEHANDLE is not open.  FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose
	   value gives the real filehandle.  (Note that this function actually
	   reads a character and then "ungetc"s it, so isn't useful in an
	   interactive context.)  Do not read from a terminal file (or call
	   "eof(FILEHANDLE)" on it) after end-of-file is reached.  File types
	   such as terminals may lose the end-of-file condition if you do.

	   An "eof" without an argument uses the last file read.  Using
	   "eof()" with empty parentheses is different.	 It refers to the
	   pseudo file formed from the files listed on the command line and
	   accessed via the "<>" operator.  Since "<>" isn't explicitly
	   opened, as a normal filehandle is, an "eof()" before "<>" has been
	   used will cause @ARGV to be examined to determine if input is
	   available.	Similarly, an "eof()" after "<>" has returned end-of-
	   file will assume you are processing another @ARGV list, and if you
	   haven't set @ARGV, will read input from "STDIN"; see "I/O
	   Operators" in perlop.

	   In a "while (<>)" loop, "eof" or "eof(ARGV)" can be used to detect
	   the end of each file, whereas "eof()" will detect the end of the
	   very last file only.	 Examples:

	       # reset line numbering on each input file
	       while (<>) {
		   next if /^\s*#/;  # skip comments
		   print "$.\t$_";
	       } continue {
		   close ARGV if eof;  # Not eof()!
	       }

	       # insert dashes just before last line of last file
	       while (<>) {
		   if (eof()) {	 # check for end of last file
		       print "--------------\n";
		   }
		   print;
		   last if eof();     # needed if we're reading from a terminal
	       }

	   Practical hint: you almost never need to use "eof" in Perl, because
	   the input operators typically return "undef" when they run out of
	   data or encounter an error.

       eval EXPR
       eval BLOCK
       eval
	   In the first form, the return value of EXPR is parsed and executed
	   as if it were a little Perl program.	 The value of the expression
	   (which is itself determined within scalar context) is first parsed,
	   and if there were no errors, executed as a block within the lexical
	   context of the current Perl program.	 This means, that in
	   particular, any outer lexical variables are visible to it, and any
	   package variable settings or subroutine and format definitions
	   remain afterwards.

	   Note that the value is parsed every time the "eval" executes.  If
	   EXPR is omitted, evaluates $_.  This form is typically used to
	   delay parsing and subsequent execution of the text of EXPR until
	   run time.

	   If the "unicode_eval" feature is enabled (which is the default
	   under a "use 5.16" or higher declaration), EXPR or $_ is treated as
	   a string of characters, so "use utf8" declarations have no effect,
	   and source filters are forbidden.  In the absence of the
	   "unicode_eval" feature, the string will sometimes be treated as
	   characters and sometimes as bytes, depending on the internal
	   encoding, and source filters activated within the "eval" exhibit
	   the erratic, but historical, behaviour of affecting some outer file
	   scope that is still compiling.  See also the "evalbytes" keyword,
	   which always treats its input as a byte stream and works properly
	   with source filters, and the feature pragma.

	   In the second form, the code within the BLOCK is parsed only
	   once--at the same time the code surrounding the "eval" itself was
	   parsed--and executed within the context of the current Perl
	   program.  This form is typically used to trap exceptions more
	   efficiently than the first (see below), while also providing the
	   benefit of checking the code within BLOCK at compile time.

	   The final semicolon, if any, may be omitted from the value of EXPR
	   or within the BLOCK.

	   In both forms, the value returned is the value of the last
	   expression evaluated inside the mini-program; a return statement
	   may be also used, just as with subroutines.	The expression
	   providing the return value is evaluated in void, scalar, or list
	   context, depending on the context of the "eval" itself.  See
	   "wantarray" for more on how the evaluation context can be
	   determined.

	   If there is a syntax error or runtime error, or a "die" statement
	   is executed, "eval" returns "undef" in scalar context or an empty
	   list in list context, and $@ is set to the error message.  (Prior
	   to 5.16, a bug caused "undef" to be returned in list context for
	   syntax errors, but not for runtime errors.)	If there was no error,
	   $@ is set to the empty string.  A control flow operator like "last"
	   or "goto" can bypass the setting of $@.  Beware that using "eval"
	   neither silences Perl from printing warnings to STDERR, nor does it
	   stuff the text of warning messages into $@.	To do either of those,
	   you have to use the $SIG{__WARN__} facility, or turn off warnings
	   inside the BLOCK or EXPR using "no warnings 'all'".	See "warn",
	   perlvar, warnings and perllexwarn.

	   Note that, because "eval" traps otherwise-fatal errors, it is
	   useful for determining whether a particular feature (such as
	   "socket" or "symlink") is implemented.  It is also Perl's
	   exception-trapping mechanism, where the die operator is used to
	   raise exceptions.

	   If you want to trap errors when loading an XS module, some problems
	   with the binary interface (such as Perl version skew) may be fatal
	   even with "eval" unless $ENV{PERL_DL_NONLAZY} is set.  See perlrun.

	   If the code to be executed doesn't vary, you may use the eval-BLOCK
	   form to trap run-time errors without incurring the penalty of
	   recompiling each time.  The error, if any, is still returned in $@.
	   Examples:

	       # make divide-by-zero nonfatal
	       eval { $answer = $a / $b; }; warn $@ if $@;

	       # same thing, but less efficient
	       eval '$answer = $a / $b'; warn $@ if $@;

	       # a compile-time error
	       eval { $answer = }; # WRONG

	       # a run-time error
	       eval '$answer =';   # sets $@

	   Using the "eval{}" form as an exception trap in libraries does have
	   some issues.	 Due to the current arguably broken state of "__DIE__"
	   hooks, you may wish not to trigger any "__DIE__" hooks that user
	   code may have installed.  You can use the "local $SIG{__DIE__}"
	   construct for this purpose, as this example shows:

	       # a private exception trap for divide-by-zero
	       eval { local $SIG{'__DIE__'}; $answer = $a / $b; };
	       warn $@ if $@;

	   This is especially significant, given that "__DIE__" hooks can call
	   "die" again, which has the effect of changing their error messages:

	       # __DIE__ hooks may modify error messages
	       {
		  local $SIG{'__DIE__'} =
			 sub { (my $x = $_[0]) =~ s/foo/bar/g; die $x };
		  eval { die "foo lives here" };
		  print $@ if $@;		 # prints "bar lives here"
	       }

	   Because this promotes action at a distance, this counterintuitive
	   behavior may be fixed in a future release.

	   With an "eval", you should be especially careful to remember what's
	   being looked at when:

	       eval $x;	       # CASE 1
	       eval "$x";      # CASE 2

	       eval '$x';      # CASE 3
	       eval { $x };    # CASE 4

	       eval "\$$x++";  # CASE 5
	       $$x++;	       # CASE 6

	   Cases 1 and 2 above behave identically: they run the code contained
	   in the variable $x.	(Although case 2 has misleading double quotes
	   making the reader wonder what else might be happening (nothing
	   is).)  Cases 3 and 4 likewise behave in the same way: they run the
	   code '$x', which does nothing but return the value of $x.  (Case 4
	   is preferred for purely visual reasons, but it also has the
	   advantage of compiling at compile-time instead of at run-time.)
	   Case 5 is a place where normally you would like to use double
	   quotes, except that in this particular situation, you can just use
	   symbolic references instead, as in case 6.

	   Before Perl 5.14, the assignment to $@ occurred before restoration
	   of localized variables, which means that for your code to run on
	   older versions, a temporary is required if you want to mask some
	   but not all errors:

	       # alter $@ on nefarious repugnancy only
	       {
		  my $e;
		  {
		    local $@; # protect existing $@
		    eval { test_repugnancy() };
		    # $@ =~ /nefarious/ and die $@; # Perl 5.14 and higher only
		    $@ =~ /nefarious/ and $e = $@;
		  }
		  die $e if defined $e
	       }

	   "eval BLOCK" does not count as a loop, so the loop control
	   statements "next", "last", or "redo" cannot be used to leave or
	   restart the block.

	   An "eval ''" executed within a subroutine defined in the "DB"
	   package doesn't see the usual surrounding lexical scope, but rather
	   the scope of the first non-DB piece of code that called it.	You
	   don't normally need to worry about this unless you are writing a
	   Perl debugger.

       evalbytes EXPR
       evalbytes
	   This function is like "eval" with a string argument, except it
	   always parses its argument, or $_ if EXPR is omitted, as a string
	   of bytes.  A string containing characters whose ordinal value
	   exceeds 255 results in an error.  Source filters activated within
	   the evaluated code apply to the code itself.

	   This function is only available under the "evalbytes" feature, a
	   "use v5.16" (or higher) declaration, or with a "CORE::" prefix.
	   See feature for more information.

       exec LIST
       exec PROGRAM LIST
	   The "exec" function executes a system command and never returns;
	   use "system" instead of "exec" if you want it to return.  It fails
	   and returns false only if the command does not exist and it is
	   executed directly instead of via your system's command shell (see
	   below).

	   Since it's a common mistake to use "exec" instead of "system", Perl
	   warns you if "exec" is called in void context and if there is a
	   following statement that isn't "die", "warn", or "exit" (if "-w" is
	   set--but you always do that, right?).  If you really want to follow
	   an "exec" with some other statement, you can use one of these
	   styles to avoid the warning:

	       exec ('foo')   or print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";
	       { exec ('foo') }; print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";

	   If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if LIST is an array
	   with more than one value, calls execvp(3) with the arguments in
	   LIST.  If there is only one scalar argument or an array with one
	   element in it, the argument is checked for shell metacharacters,
	   and if there are any, the entire argument is passed to the system's
	   command shell for parsing (this is "/bin/sh -c" on Unix platforms,
	   but varies on other platforms).  If there are no shell
	   metacharacters in the argument, it is split into words and passed
	   directly to "execvp", which is more efficient.  Examples:

	       exec '/bin/echo', 'Your arguments are: ', @ARGV;
	       exec "sort $outfile | uniq";

	   If you don't really want to execute the first argument, but want to
	   lie to the program you are executing about its own name, you can
	   specify the program you actually want to run as an "indirect
	   object" (without a comma) in front of the LIST.  (This always
	   forces interpretation of the LIST as a multivalued list, even if
	   there is only a single scalar in the list.)	Example:

	       $shell = '/bin/csh';
	       exec $shell '-sh';    # pretend it's a login shell

	   or, more directly,

	       exec {'/bin/csh'} '-sh';	 # pretend it's a login shell

	   When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results are
	   subject to its quirks and capabilities.  See "`STRING`" in perlop
	   for details.

	   Using an indirect object with "exec" or "system" is also more
	   secure.  This usage (which also works fine with system()) forces
	   interpretation of the arguments as a multivalued list, even if the
	   list had just one argument.	That way you're safe from the shell
	   expanding wildcards or splitting up words with whitespace in them.

	       @args = ( "echo surprise" );

	       exec @args;		 # subject to shell escapes
					   # if @args == 1
	       exec { $args[0] } @args;	 # safe even with one-arg list

	   The first version, the one without the indirect object, ran the
	   echo program, passing it "surprise" an argument.  The second
	   version didn't; it tried to run a program named "echo surprise",
	   didn't find it, and set $? to a non-zero value indicating failure.

	   Perl attempts to flush all files opened for output before the exec,
	   but this may not be supported on some platforms (see perlport).  To
	   be safe, you may need to set $| ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the
	   "autoflush()" method of "IO::Handle" on any open handles to avoid
	   lost output.

	   Note that "exec" will not call your "END" blocks, nor will it
	   invoke "DESTROY" methods on your objects.

	   Portability issues: "exec" in perlport.

       exists EXPR
	   Given an expression that specifies an element of a hash, returns
	   true if the specified element in the hash has ever been
	   initialized, even if the corresponding value is undefined.

	       print "Exists\n"	   if exists $hash{$key};
	       print "Defined\n"   if defined $hash{$key};
	       print "True\n"	   if $hash{$key};

	   exists may also be called on array elements, but its behavior is
	   much less obvious and is strongly tied to the use of "delete" on
	   arrays.  Be aware that calling exists on array values is deprecated
	   and likely to be removed in a future version of Perl.

	       print "Exists\n"	   if exists $array[$index];
	       print "Defined\n"   if defined $array[$index];
	       print "True\n"	   if $array[$index];

	   A hash or array element can be true only if it's defined and
	   defined only if it exists, but the reverse doesn't necessarily hold
	   true.

	   Given an expression that specifies the name of a subroutine,
	   returns true if the specified subroutine has ever been declared,
	   even if it is undefined.  Mentioning a subroutine name for exists
	   or defined does not count as declaring it.  Note that a subroutine
	   that does not exist may still be callable: its package may have an
	   "AUTOLOAD" method that makes it spring into existence the first
	   time that it is called; see perlsub.

	       print "Exists\n"	 if exists &subroutine;
	       print "Defined\n" if defined &subroutine;

	   Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the
	   final operation is a hash or array key lookup or subroutine name:

	       if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->{$key})  { }
	       if (exists $hash{A}{B}{$key})	   { }

	       if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->[$ix])   { }
	       if (exists $hash{A}{B}[$ix])	   { }

	       if (exists &{$ref->{A}{B}{$key}})   { }

	   Although the most deeply nested array or hash element will not
	   spring into existence just because its existence was tested, any
	   intervening ones will.  Thus "$ref->{"A"}" and "$ref->{"A"}->{"B"}"
	   will spring into existence due to the existence test for the $key
	   element above.  This happens anywhere the arrow operator is used,
	   including even here:

	       undef $ref;
	       if (exists $ref->{"Some key"})	 { }
	       print $ref;  # prints HASH(0x80d3d5c)

	   This surprising autovivification in what does not at first--or even
	   second--glance appear to be an lvalue context may be fixed in a
	   future release.

	   Use of a subroutine call, rather than a subroutine name, as an
	   argument to exists() is an error.

	       exists ⊂    # OK
	       exists &sub();  # Error

       exit EXPR
       exit
	   Evaluates EXPR and exits immediately with that value.    Example:

	       $ans = <STDIN>;
	       exit 0 if $ans =~ /^[Xx]/;

	   See also "die".  If EXPR is omitted, exits with 0 status.  The only
	   universally recognized values for EXPR are 0 for success and 1 for
	   error; other values are subject to interpretation depending on the
	   environment in which the Perl program is running.  For example,
	   exiting 69 (EX_UNAVAILABLE) from a sendmail incoming-mail filter
	   will cause the mailer to return the item undelivered, but that's
	   not true everywhere.

	   Don't use "exit" to abort a subroutine if there's any chance that
	   someone might want to trap whatever error happened.	Use "die"
	   instead, which can be trapped by an "eval".

	   The exit() function does not always exit immediately.  It calls any
	   defined "END" routines first, but these "END" routines may not
	   themselves abort the exit.  Likewise any object destructors that
	   need to be called are called before the real exit.  "END" routines
	   and destructors can change the exit status by modifying $?.	If
	   this is a problem, you can call "POSIX::_exit($status)" to avoid
	   END and destructor processing.  See perlmod for details.

	   Portability issues: "exit" in perlport.

       exp EXPR
       exp Returns e (the natural logarithm base) to the power of EXPR.	 If
	   EXPR is omitted, gives "exp($_)".

       fc EXPR
       fc  Returns the casefolded version of EXPR.  This is the internal
	   function implementing the "\F" escape in double-quoted strings.

	   Casefolding is the process of mapping strings to a form where case
	   differences are erased; comparing two strings in their casefolded
	   form is effectively a way of asking if two strings are equal,
	   regardless of case.

	   Roughly, if you ever found yourself writing this

	       lc($this) eq lc($that)	 # Wrong!
		   # or
	       uc($this) eq uc($that)	 # Also wrong!
		   # or
	       $this =~ /^\Q$that\E\z/i	 # Right!

	   Now you can write

	       fc($this) eq fc($that)

	   And get the correct results.

	   Perl only implements the full form of casefolding, but you can
	   access the simple folds using "casefold()" in Unicode::UCD and
	   "prop_invmap()" in Unicode::UCD.  For further information on
	   casefolding, refer to the Unicode Standard, specifically sections
	   3.13 "Default Case Operations", 4.2 "Case-Normative", and 5.18
	   "Case Mappings", available at
	   <http://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/>, as well as the Case
	   Charts available at <http://www.unicode.org/charts/case/>.

	   If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.

	   This function behaves the same way under various pragma, such as in
	   a locale, as "lc" does.

	   While the Unicode Standard defines two additional forms of
	   casefolding, one for Turkic languages and one that never maps one
	   character into multiple characters, these are not provided by the
	   Perl core; However, the CPAN module "Unicode::Casing" may be used
	   to provide an implementation.

	   This keyword is available only when the "fc" feature is enabled, or
	   when prefixed with "CORE::"; See feature. Alternately, include a
	   "use v5.16" or later to the current scope.

       fcntl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
	   Implements the fcntl(2) function.  You'll probably have to say

	       use Fcntl;

	   first to get the correct constant definitions.  Argument processing
	   and value returned work just like "ioctl" below.  For example:

	       use Fcntl;
	       fcntl($filehandle, F_GETFL, $packed_return_buffer)
		   or die "can't fcntl F_GETFL: $!";

	   You don't have to check for "defined" on the return from "fcntl".
	   Like "ioctl", it maps a 0 return from the system call into "0 but
	   true" in Perl.  This string is true in boolean context and 0 in
	   numeric context.  It is also exempt from the normal -w warnings on
	   improper numeric conversions.

	   Note that "fcntl" raises an exception if used on a machine that
	   doesn't implement fcntl(2).	See the Fcntl module or your fcntl(2)
	   manpage to learn what functions are available on your system.

	   Here's an example of setting a filehandle named "REMOTE" to be non-
	   blocking at the system level.  You'll have to negotiate $| on your
	   own, though.

	       use Fcntl qw(F_GETFL F_SETFL O_NONBLOCK);

	       $flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_GETFL, 0)
			   or die "Can't get flags for the socket: $!\n";

	       $flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_SETFL, $flags | O_NONBLOCK)
			   or die "Can't set flags for the socket: $!\n";

	   Portability issues: "fcntl" in perlport.

       __FILE__
	   A special token that returns the name of the file in which it
	   occurs.

       fileno FILEHANDLE
	   Returns the file descriptor for a filehandle, or undefined if the
	   filehandle is not open.  If there is no real file descriptor at the
	   OS level, as can happen with filehandles connected to memory
	   objects via "open" with a reference for the third argument, -1 is
	   returned.

	   This is mainly useful for constructing bitmaps for "select" and
	   low-level POSIX tty-handling operations.  If FILEHANDLE is an
	   expression, the value is taken as an indirect filehandle, generally
	   its name.

	   You can use this to find out whether two handles refer to the same
	   underlying descriptor:

	       if (fileno(THIS) == fileno(THAT)) {
		   print "THIS and THAT are dups\n";
	       }

       flock FILEHANDLE,OPERATION
	   Calls flock(2), or an emulation of it, on FILEHANDLE.  Returns true
	   for success, false on failure.  Produces a fatal error if used on a
	   machine that doesn't implement flock(2), fcntl(2) locking, or
	   lockf(3).  "flock" is Perl's portable file-locking interface,
	   although it locks entire files only, not records.

	   Two potentially non-obvious but traditional "flock" semantics are
	   that it waits indefinitely until the lock is granted, and that its
	   locks are merely advisory.  Such discretionary locks are more
	   flexible, but offer fewer guarantees.  This means that programs
	   that do not also use "flock" may modify files locked with "flock".
	   See perlport, your port's specific documentation, and your system-
	   specific local manpages for details.	 It's best to assume
	   traditional behavior if you're writing portable programs.  (But if
	   you're not, you should as always feel perfectly free to write for
	   your own system's idiosyncrasies (sometimes called "features").
	   Slavish adherence to portability concerns shouldn't get in the way
	   of your getting your job done.)

	   OPERATION is one of LOCK_SH, LOCK_EX, or LOCK_UN, possibly combined
	   with LOCK_NB.  These constants are traditionally valued 1, 2, 8 and
	   4, but you can use the symbolic names if you import them from the
	   Fcntl module, either individually, or as a group using the ":flock"
	   tag.	 LOCK_SH requests a shared lock, LOCK_EX requests an exclusive
	   lock, and LOCK_UN releases a previously requested lock.  If LOCK_NB
	   is bitwise-or'ed with LOCK_SH or LOCK_EX, then "flock" returns
	   immediately rather than blocking waiting for the lock; check the
	   return status to see if you got it.

	   To avoid the possibility of miscoordination, Perl now flushes
	   FILEHANDLE before locking or unlocking it.

	   Note that the emulation built with lockf(3) doesn't provide shared
	   locks, and it requires that FILEHANDLE be open with write intent.
	   These are the semantics that lockf(3) implements.  Most if not all
	   systems implement lockf(3) in terms of fcntl(2) locking, though, so
	   the differing semantics shouldn't bite too many people.

	   Note that the fcntl(2) emulation of flock(3) requires that
	   FILEHANDLE be open with read intent to use LOCK_SH and requires
	   that it be open with write intent to use LOCK_EX.

	   Note also that some versions of "flock" cannot lock things over the
	   network; you would need to use the more system-specific "fcntl" for
	   that.  If you like you can force Perl to ignore your system's
	   flock(2) function, and so provide its own fcntl(2)-based emulation,
	   by passing the switch "-Ud_flock" to the Configure program when you
	   configure and build a new Perl.

	   Here's a mailbox appender for BSD systems.

	       # import LOCK_* and SEEK_END constants
	       use Fcntl qw(:flock SEEK_END);

	       sub lock {
		   my ($fh) = @_;
		   flock($fh, LOCK_EX) or die "Cannot lock mailbox - $!\n";

		   # and, in case someone appended while we were waiting...
		   seek($fh, 0, SEEK_END) or die "Cannot seek - $!\n";
	       }

	       sub unlock {
		   my ($fh) = @_;
		   flock($fh, LOCK_UN) or die "Cannot unlock mailbox - $!\n";
	       }

	       open(my $mbox, ">>", "/usr/spool/mail/$ENV{'USER'}")
		   or die "Can't open mailbox: $!";

	       lock($mbox);
	       print $mbox $msg,"\n\n";
	       unlock($mbox);

	   On systems that support a real flock(2), locks are inherited across
	   fork() calls, whereas those that must resort to the more capricious
	   fcntl(2) function lose their locks, making it seriously harder to
	   write servers.

	   See also DB_File for other flock() examples.

	   Portability issues: "flock" in perlport.

       fork
	   Does a fork(2) system call to create a new process running the same
	   program at the same point.  It returns the child pid to the parent
	   process, 0 to the child process, or "undef" if the fork is
	   unsuccessful.  File descriptors (and sometimes locks on those
	   descriptors) are shared, while everything else is copied.  On most
	   systems supporting fork(), great care has gone into making it
	   extremely efficient (for example, using copy-on-write technology on
	   data pages), making it the dominant paradigm for multitasking over
	   the last few decades.

	   Perl attempts to flush all files opened for output before forking
	   the child process, but this may not be supported on some platforms
	   (see perlport).  To be safe, you may need to set $| ($AUTOFLUSH in
	   English) or call the "autoflush()" method of "IO::Handle" on any
	   open handles to avoid duplicate output.

	   If you "fork" without ever waiting on your children, you will
	   accumulate zombies.	On some systems, you can avoid this by setting
	   $SIG{CHLD} to "IGNORE".  See also perlipc for more examples of
	   forking and reaping moribund children.

	   Note that if your forked child inherits system file descriptors
	   like STDIN and STDOUT that are actually connected by a pipe or
	   socket, even if you exit, then the remote server (such as, say, a
	   CGI script or a backgrounded job launched from a remote shell)
	   won't think you're done.  You should reopen those to /dev/null if
	   it's any issue.

	   On some platforms such as Windows, where the fork() system call is
	   not available, Perl can be built to emulate fork() in the Perl
	   interpreter.	 The emulation is designed, at the level of the Perl
	   program, to be as compatible as possible with the "Unix" fork().
	   However it has limitations that have to be considered in code
	   intended to be portable.  See perlfork for more details.

	   Portability issues: "fork" in perlport.

       format
	   Declare a picture format for use by the "write" function.  For
	   example:

	       format Something =
		   Test: @<<<<<<<< @||||| @>>>>>
			 $str,	   $%,	  '$' . int($num)
	       .

	       $str = "widget";
	       $num = $cost/$quantity;
	       $~ = 'Something';
	       write;

	   See perlform for many details and examples.

       formline PICTURE,LIST
	   This is an internal function used by "format"s, though you may call
	   it, too.  It formats (see perlform) a list of values according to
	   the contents of PICTURE, placing the output into the format output
	   accumulator, $^A (or $ACCUMULATOR in English).  Eventually, when a
	   "write" is done, the contents of $^A are written to some
	   filehandle.	You could also read $^A and then set $^A back to "".
	   Note that a format typically does one "formline" per line of form,
	   but the "formline" function itself doesn't care how many newlines
	   are embedded in the PICTURE.	 This means that the "~" and "~~"
	   tokens treat the entire PICTURE as a single line.  You may
	   therefore need to use multiple formlines to implement a single
	   record format, just like the "format" compiler.

	   Be careful if you put double quotes around the picture, because an
	   "@" character may be taken to mean the beginning of an array name.
	   "formline" always returns true.  See perlform for other examples.

	   If you are trying to use this instead of "write" to capture the
	   output, you may find it easier to open a filehandle to a scalar
	   ("open $fh, ">", \$output") and write to that instead.

       getc FILEHANDLE
       getc
	   Returns the next character from the input file attached to
	   FILEHANDLE, or the undefined value at end of file or if there was
	   an error (in the latter case $! is set).  If FILEHANDLE is omitted,
	   reads from STDIN.  This is not particularly efficient.  However, it
	   cannot be used by itself to fetch single characters without waiting
	   for the user to hit enter.  For that, try something more like:

	       if ($BSD_STYLE) {
		   system "stty cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
	       }
	       else {
		   system "stty", '-icanon', 'eol', "\001";
	       }

	       $key = getc(STDIN);

	       if ($BSD_STYLE) {
		   system "stty -cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
	       }
	       else {
		   system 'stty', 'icanon', 'eol', '^@'; # ASCII NUL
	       }
	       print "\n";

	   Determination of whether $BSD_STYLE should be set is left as an
	   exercise to the reader.

	   The "POSIX::getattr" function can do this more portably on systems
	   purporting POSIX compliance.	 See also the "Term::ReadKey" module
	   from your nearest CPAN site; details on CPAN can be found under
	   "CPAN" in perlmodlib.

       getlogin
	   This implements the C library function of the same name, which on
	   most systems returns the current login from /etc/utmp, if any.  If
	   it returns the empty string, use "getpwuid".

	       $login = getlogin || getpwuid($<) || "Kilroy";

	   Do not consider "getlogin" for authentication: it is not as secure
	   as "getpwuid".

	   Portability issues: "getlogin" in perlport.

       getpeername SOCKET
	   Returns the packed sockaddr address of the other end of the SOCKET
	   connection.

	       use Socket;
	       $hersockaddr    = getpeername(SOCK);
	       ($port, $iaddr) = sockaddr_in($hersockaddr);
	       $herhostname    = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
	       $herstraddr     = inet_ntoa($iaddr);

       getpgrp PID
	   Returns the current process group for the specified PID.  Use a PID
	   of 0 to get the current process group for the current process.
	   Will raise an exception if used on a machine that doesn't implement
	   getpgrp(2).	If PID is omitted, returns the process group of the
	   current process.  Note that the POSIX version of "getpgrp" does not
	   accept a PID argument, so only "PID==0" is truly portable.

	   Portability issues: "getpgrp" in perlport.

       getppid
	   Returns the process id of the parent process.

	   Note for Linux users: Between v5.8.1 and v5.16.0 Perl would work
	   around non-POSIX thread semantics the minority of Linux systems
	   (and Debian GNU/kFreeBSD systems) that used LinuxThreads, this
	   emulation has since been removed. See the documentation for $$ for
	   details.

	   Portability issues: "getppid" in perlport.

       getpriority WHICH,WHO
	   Returns the current priority for a process, a process group, or a
	   user.  (See getpriority(2).)	 Will raise a fatal exception if used
	   on a machine that doesn't implement getpriority(2).

	   Portability issues: "getpriority" in perlport.

       getpwnam NAME
       getgrnam NAME
       gethostbyname NAME
       getnetbyname NAME
       getprotobyname NAME
       getpwuid UID
       getgrgid GID
       getservbyname NAME,PROTO
       gethostbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
       getnetbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
       getprotobynumber NUMBER
       getservbyport PORT,PROTO
       getpwent
       getgrent
       gethostent
       getnetent
       getprotoent
       getservent
       setpwent
       setgrent
       sethostent STAYOPEN
       setnetent STAYOPEN
       setprotoent STAYOPEN
       setservent STAYOPEN
       endpwent
       endgrent
       endhostent
       endnetent
       endprotoent
       endservent
	   These routines are the same as their counterparts in the system C
	   library.  In list context, the return values from the various get
	   routines are as follows:

	       ($name,$passwd,$uid,$gid,
		  $quota,$comment,$gcos,$dir,$shell,$expire) = getpw*
	       ($name,$passwd,$gid,$members) = getgr*
	       ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$length,@addrs) = gethost*
	       ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$net) = getnet*
	       ($name,$aliases,$proto) = getproto*
	       ($name,$aliases,$port,$proto) = getserv*

	   (If the entry doesn't exist you get an empty list.)

	   The exact meaning of the $gcos field varies but it usually contains
	   the real name of the user (as opposed to the login name) and other
	   information pertaining to the user.	Beware, however, that in many
	   system users are able to change this information and therefore it
	   cannot be trusted and therefore the $gcos is tainted (see perlsec).
	   The $passwd and $shell, user's encrypted password and login shell,
	   are also tainted, for the same reason.

	   In scalar context, you get the name, unless the function was a
	   lookup by name, in which case you get the other thing, whatever it
	   is.	(If the entry doesn't exist you get the undefined value.)  For
	   example:

	       $uid   = getpwnam($name);
	       $name  = getpwuid($num);
	       $name  = getpwent();
	       $gid   = getgrnam($name);
	       $name  = getgrgid($num);
	       $name  = getgrent();
	       #etc.

	   In getpw*() the fields $quota, $comment, and $expire are special in
	   that they are unsupported on many systems.  If the $quota is
	   unsupported, it is an empty scalar.	If it is supported, it usually
	   encodes the disk quota.  If the $comment field is unsupported, it
	   is an empty scalar.	If it is supported it usually encodes some
	   administrative comment about the user.  In some systems the $quota
	   field may be $change or $age, fields that have to do with password
	   aging.  In some systems the $comment field may be $class.  The
	   $expire field, if present, encodes the expiration period of the
	   account or the password.  For the availability and the exact
	   meaning of these fields in your system, please consult getpwnam(3)
	   and your system's pwd.h file.  You can also find out from within
	   Perl what your $quota and $comment fields mean and whether you have
	   the $expire field by using the "Config" module and the values
	   "d_pwquota", "d_pwage", "d_pwchange", "d_pwcomment", and
	   "d_pwexpire".  Shadow password files are supported only if your
	   vendor has implemented them in the intuitive fashion that calling
	   the regular C library routines gets the shadow versions if you're
	   running under privilege or if there exists the shadow(3) functions
	   as found in System V (this includes Solaris and Linux).  Those
	   systems that implement a proprietary shadow password facility are
	   unlikely to be supported.

	   The $members value returned by getgr*() is a space-separated list
	   of the login names of the members of the group.

	   For the gethost*() functions, if the "h_errno" variable is
	   supported in C, it will be returned to you via $? if the function
	   call fails.	The @addrs value returned by a successful call is a
	   list of raw addresses returned by the corresponding library call.
	   In the Internet domain, each address is four bytes long; you can
	   unpack it by saying something like:

	       ($a,$b,$c,$d) = unpack('W4',$addr[0]);

	   The Socket library makes this slightly easier:

	       use Socket;
	       $iaddr = inet_aton("127.1"); # or whatever address
	       $name  = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);

	       # or going the other way
	       $straddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr);

	   In the opposite way, to resolve a hostname to the IP address you
	   can write this:

	       use Socket;
	       $packed_ip = gethostbyname("www.perl.org");
	       if (defined $packed_ip) {
		   $ip_address = inet_ntoa($packed_ip);
	       }

	   Make sure "gethostbyname()" is called in SCALAR context and that
	   its return value is checked for definedness.

	   The "getprotobynumber" function, even though it only takes one
	   argument, has the precedence of a list operator, so beware:

	       getprotobynumber $number eq 'icmp'   # WRONG
	       getprotobynumber($number eq 'icmp')  # actually means this
	       getprotobynumber($number) eq 'icmp'  # better this way

	   If you get tired of remembering which element of the return list
	   contains which return value, by-name interfaces are provided in
	   standard modules: "File::stat", "Net::hostent", "Net::netent",
	   "Net::protoent", "Net::servent", "Time::gmtime", "Time::localtime",
	   and "User::grent".  These override the normal built-ins, supplying
	   versions that return objects with the appropriate names for each
	   field.  For example:

	      use File::stat;
	      use User::pwent;
	      $is_his = (stat($filename)->uid == pwent($whoever)->uid);

	   Even though it looks as though they're the same method calls (uid),
	   they aren't, because a "File::stat" object is different from a
	   "User::pwent" object.

	   Portability issues: "getpwnam" in perlport to "endservent" in
	   perlport.

       getsockname SOCKET
	   Returns the packed sockaddr address of this end of the SOCKET
	   connection, in case you don't know the address because you have
	   several different IPs that the connection might have come in on.

	       use Socket;
	       $mysockaddr = getsockname(SOCK);
	       ($port, $myaddr) = sockaddr_in($mysockaddr);
	       printf "Connect to %s [%s]\n",
		  scalar gethostbyaddr($myaddr, AF_INET),
		  inet_ntoa($myaddr);

       getsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME
	   Queries the option named OPTNAME associated with SOCKET at a given
	   LEVEL.  Options may exist at multiple protocol levels depending on
	   the socket type, but at least the uppermost socket level SOL_SOCKET
	   (defined in the "Socket" module) will exist.	 To query options at
	   another level the protocol number of the appropriate protocol
	   controlling the option should be supplied.  For example, to
	   indicate that an option is to be interpreted by the TCP protocol,
	   LEVEL should be set to the protocol number of TCP, which you can
	   get using "getprotobyname".

	   The function returns a packed string representing the requested
	   socket option, or "undef" on error, with the reason for the error
	   placed in $!.  Just what is in the packed string depends on LEVEL
	   and OPTNAME; consult getsockopt(2) for details.  A common case is
	   that the option is an integer, in which case the result is a packed
	   integer, which you can decode using "unpack" with the "i" (or "I")
	   format.

	   Here's an example to test whether Nagle's algorithm is enabled on a
	   socket:

	       use Socket qw(:all);

	       defined(my $tcp = getprotobyname("tcp"))
		   or die "Could not determine the protocol number for tcp";
	       # my $tcp = IPPROTO_TCP; # Alternative
	       my $packed = getsockopt($socket, $tcp, TCP_NODELAY)
		   or die "getsockopt TCP_NODELAY: $!";
	       my $nodelay = unpack("I", $packed);
	       print "Nagle's algorithm is turned ",
		      $nodelay ? "off\n" : "on\n";

	   Portability issues: "getsockopt" in perlport.

       glob EXPR
       glob
	   In list context, returns a (possibly empty) list of filename
	   expansions on the value of EXPR such as the standard Unix shell
	   /bin/csh would do.  In scalar context, glob iterates through such
	   filename expansions, returning undef when the list is exhausted.
	   This is the internal function implementing the "<*.c>" operator,
	   but you can use it directly.	 If EXPR is omitted, $_ is used.  The
	   "<*.c>" operator is discussed in more detail in "I/O Operators" in
	   perlop.

	   Note that "glob" splits its arguments on whitespace and treats each
	   segment as separate pattern.	 As such, "glob("*.c *.h")" matches
	   all files with a .c or .h extension.	 The expression "glob(".* *")"
	   matches all files in the current working directory.	If you want to
	   glob filenames that might contain whitespace, you'll have to use
	   extra quotes around the spacey filename to protect it.  For
	   example, to glob filenames that have an "e" followed by a space
	   followed by an "f", use either of:

	       @spacies = <"*e f*">;
	       @spacies = glob '"*e f*"';
	       @spacies = glob q("*e f*");

	   If you had to get a variable through, you could do this:

	       @spacies = glob "'*${var}e f*'";
	       @spacies = glob qq("*${var}e f*");

	   If non-empty braces are the only wildcard characters used in the
	   "glob", no filenames are matched, but potentially many strings are
	   returned.  For example, this produces nine strings, one for each
	   pairing of fruits and colors:

	       @many =	glob "{apple,tomato,cherry}={green,yellow,red}";

	   This operator is implemented using the standard "File::Glob"
	   extension.  See File::Glob for details, including "bsd_glob" which
	   does not treat whitespace as a pattern separator.

	   Portability issues: "glob" in perlport.

       gmtime EXPR
       gmtime
	   Works just like "localtime" but the returned values are localized
	   for the standard Greenwich time zone.

	   Note: When called in list context, $isdst, the last value returned
	   by gmtime, is always 0.  There is no Daylight Saving Time in GMT.

	   Portability issues: "gmtime" in perlport.

       goto LABEL
       goto EXPR
       goto &NAME
	   The "goto-LABEL" form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and
	   resumes execution there.  It can't be used to get out of a block or
	   subroutine given to "sort".	It can be used to go almost anywhere
	   else within the dynamic scope, including out of subroutines, but
	   it's usually better to use some other construct such as "last" or
	   "die".  The author of Perl has never felt the need to use this form
	   of "goto" (in Perl, that is; C is another matter).  (The difference
	   is that C does not offer named loops combined with loop control.
	   Perl does, and this replaces most structured uses of "goto" in
	   other languages.)

	   The "goto-EXPR" form expects a label name, whose scope will be
	   resolved dynamically.  This allows for computed "goto"s per
	   FORTRAN, but isn't necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for
	   maintainability:

	       goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i];

	   As shown in this example, "goto-EXPR" is exempt from the "looks
	   like a function" rule.  A pair of parentheses following it does not
	   (necessarily) delimit its argument.	"goto("NE")."XT"" is
	   equivalent to "goto NEXT".  Also, unlike most named operators, this
	   has the same precedence as assignment.

	   Use of "goto-LABEL" or "goto-EXPR" to jump into a construct is
	   deprecated and will issue a warning.	 Even then, it may not be used
	   to go into any construct that requires initialization, such as a
	   subroutine or a "foreach" loop.  It also can't be used to go into a
	   construct that is optimized away.

	   The "goto-&NAME" form is quite different from the other forms of
	   "goto".  In fact, it isn't a goto in the normal sense at all, and
	   doesn't have the stigma associated with other gotos.	 Instead, it
	   exits the current subroutine (losing any changes set by local())
	   and immediately calls in its place the named subroutine using the
	   current value of @_.	 This is used by "AUTOLOAD" subroutines that
	   wish to load another subroutine and then pretend that the other
	   subroutine had been called in the first place (except that any
	   modifications to @_ in the current subroutine are propagated to the
	   other subroutine.)  After the "goto", not even "caller" will be
	   able to tell that this routine was called first.

	   NAME needn't be the name of a subroutine; it can be a scalar
	   variable containing a code reference or a block that evaluates to a
	   code reference.

       grep BLOCK LIST
       grep EXPR,LIST
	   This is similar in spirit to, but not the same as, grep(1) and its
	   relatives.  In particular, it is not limited to using regular
	   expressions.

	   Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally
	   setting $_ to each element) and returns the list value consisting
	   of those elements for which the expression evaluated to true.  In
	   scalar context, returns the number of times the expression was
	   true.

	       @foo = grep(!/^#/, @bar);    # weed out comments

	   or equivalently,

	       @foo = grep {!/^#/} @bar;    # weed out comments

	   Note that $_ is an alias to the list value, so it can be used to
	   modify the elements of the LIST.  While this is useful and
	   supported, it can cause bizarre results if the elements of LIST are
	   not variables.  Similarly, grep returns aliases into the original
	   list, much as a for loop's index variable aliases the list
	   elements.  That is, modifying an element of a list returned by grep
	   (for example, in a "foreach", "map" or another "grep") actually
	   modifies the element in the original list.  This is usually
	   something to be avoided when writing clear code.

	   If $_ is lexical in the scope where the "grep" appears (because it
	   has been declared with the deprecated "my $_" construct) then, in
	   addition to being locally aliased to the list elements, $_ keeps
	   being lexical inside the block; i.e., it can't be seen from the
	   outside, avoiding any potential side-effects.

	   See also "map" for a list composed of the results of the BLOCK or
	   EXPR.

       hex EXPR
       hex Interprets EXPR as a hex string and returns the corresponding
	   value.  (To convert strings that might start with either 0, "0x",
	   or "0b", see "oct".)	 If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.

	       print hex '0xAf'; # prints '175'
	       print hex 'aF';	 # same

	   Hex strings may only represent integers.  Strings that would cause
	   integer overflow trigger a warning.	Leading whitespace is not
	   stripped, unlike oct().  To present something as hex, look into
	   "printf", "sprintf", and "unpack".

       import LIST
	   There is no builtin "import" function.  It is just an ordinary
	   method (subroutine) defined (or inherited) by modules that wish to
	   export names to another module.  The "use" function calls the
	   "import" method for the package used.  See also "use", perlmod, and
	   Exporter.

       index STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
       index STR,SUBSTR
	   The index function searches for one string within another, but
	   without the wildcard-like behavior of a full regular-expression
	   pattern match.  It returns the position of the first occurrence of
	   SUBSTR in STR at or after POSITION.	If POSITION is omitted, starts
	   searching from the beginning of the string.	POSITION before the
	   beginning of the string or after its end is treated as if it were
	   the beginning or the end, respectively.  POSITION and the return
	   value are based at zero.  If the substring is not found, "index"
	   returns -1.

       int EXPR
       int Returns the integer portion of EXPR.	 If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
	   You should not use this function for rounding: one because it
	   truncates towards 0, and two because machine representations of
	   floating-point numbers can sometimes produce counterintuitive
	   results.  For example, "int(-6.725/0.025)" produces -268 rather
	   than the correct -269; that's because it's really more like
	   -268.99999999999994315658 instead.  Usually, the "sprintf",
	   "printf", or the "POSIX::floor" and "POSIX::ceil" functions will
	   serve you better than will int().

       ioctl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
	   Implements the ioctl(2) function.  You'll probably first have to
	   say

	       require "sys/ioctl.ph";	# probably in
					# $Config{archlib}/sys/ioctl.ph

	   to get the correct function definitions.  If sys/ioctl.ph doesn't
	   exist or doesn't have the correct definitions you'll have to roll
	   your own, based on your C header files such as <sys/ioctl.h>.
	   (There is a Perl script called h2ph that comes with the Perl kit
	   that may help you in this, but it's nontrivial.)  SCALAR will be
	   read and/or written depending on the FUNCTION; a C pointer to the
	   string value of SCALAR will be passed as the third argument of the
	   actual "ioctl" call.	 (If SCALAR has no string value but does have
	   a numeric value, that value will be passed rather than a pointer to
	   the string value.  To guarantee this to be true, add a 0 to the
	   scalar before using it.)  The "pack" and "unpack" functions may be
	   needed to manipulate the values of structures used by "ioctl".

	   The return value of "ioctl" (and "fcntl") is as follows:

	       if OS returns:	   then Perl returns:
		   -1		    undefined value
		    0		   string "0 but true"
	       anything else	       that number

	   Thus Perl returns true on success and false on failure, yet you can
	   still easily determine the actual value returned by the operating
	   system:

	       $retval = ioctl(...) || -1;
	       printf "System returned %d\n", $retval;

	   The special string "0 but true" is exempt from -w complaints about
	   improper numeric conversions.

	   Portability issues: "ioctl" in perlport.

       join EXPR,LIST
	   Joins the separate strings of LIST into a single string with fields
	   separated by the value of EXPR, and returns that new string.
	   Example:

	       $rec = join(':', $login,$passwd,$uid,$gid,$gcos,$home,$shell);

	   Beware that unlike "split", "join" doesn't take a pattern as its
	   first argument.  Compare "split".

       keys HASH
       keys ARRAY
       keys EXPR
	   Called in list context, returns a list consisting of all the keys
	   of the named hash, or in Perl 5.12 or later only, the indices of an
	   array.  Perl releases prior to 5.12 will produce a syntax error if
	   you try to use an array argument.  In scalar context, returns the
	   number of keys or indices.

	   Hash entries are returned in an apparently random order.  The
	   actual random order is specific to a given hash; the exact same
	   series of operations on two hashes may result in a different order
	   for each hash. Any insertion into the hash may change the order, as
	   will any deletion, with the exception that the most recent key
	   returned by "each" or "keys" may be deleted without changing the
	   order. So long as a given hash is unmodified you may rely on
	   "keys", "values" and "each" to repeatedly return the same order as
	   each other. See "Algorithmic Complexity Attacks" in perlsec for
	   details on why hash order is randomized. Aside from the guarantees
	   provided here the exact details of Perl's hash algorithm and the
	   hash traversal order are subject to change in any release of Perl.

	   As a side effect, calling keys() resets the internal iterator of
	   the HASH or ARRAY (see "each").  In particular, calling keys() in
	   void context resets the iterator with no other overhead.

	   Here is yet another way to print your environment:

	       @keys = keys %ENV;
	       @values = values %ENV;
	       while (@keys) {
		   print pop(@keys), '=', pop(@values), "\n";
	       }

	   or how about sorted by key:

	       foreach $key (sort(keys %ENV)) {
		   print $key, '=', $ENV{$key}, "\n";
	       }

	   The returned values are copies of the original keys in the hash, so
	   modifying them will not affect the original hash.  Compare
	   "values".

	   To sort a hash by value, you'll need to use a "sort" function.
	   Here's a descending numeric sort of a hash by its values:

	       foreach $key (sort { $hash{$b} <=> $hash{$a} } keys %hash) {
		   printf "%4d %s\n", $hash{$key}, $key;
	       }

	   Used as an lvalue, "keys" allows you to increase the number of hash
	   buckets allocated for the given hash.  This can gain you a measure
	   of efficiency if you know the hash is going to get big.  (This is
	   similar to pre-extending an array by assigning a larger number to
	   $#array.)  If you say

	       keys %hash = 200;

	   then %hash will have at least 200 buckets allocated for it--256 of
	   them, in fact, since it rounds up to the next power of two.	These
	   buckets will be retained even if you do "%hash = ()", use "undef
	   %hash" if you want to free the storage while %hash is still in
	   scope.  You can't shrink the number of buckets allocated for the
	   hash using "keys" in this way (but you needn't worry about doing
	   this by accident, as trying has no effect).	"keys @array" in an
	   lvalue context is a syntax error.

	   Starting with Perl 5.14, "keys" can take a scalar EXPR, which must
	   contain a reference to an unblessed hash or array.  The argument
	   will be dereferenced automatically.	This aspect of "keys" is
	   considered highly experimental.  The exact behaviour may change in
	   a future version of Perl.

	       for (keys $hashref) { ... }
	       for (keys $obj->get_arrayref) { ... }

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code who are running
	   earlier versions of Perl with mysterious syntax errors, put this
	   sort of thing at the top of your file to signal that your code will
	   work only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.012;  # so keys/values/each work on arrays
	       use 5.014;  # so keys/values/each work on scalars (experimental)

	   See also "each", "values", and "sort".

       kill SIGNAL, LIST
       kill SIGNAL
	   Sends a signal to a list of processes.  Returns the number of
	   processes successfully signaled (which is not necessarily the same
	   as the number actually killed).

	       $cnt = kill 'HUP', $child1, $child2;
	       kill 'KILL', @goners;

	   SIGNAL may be either a signal name (a string) or a signal number.
	   A signal name may start with a "SIG" prefix, thus "FOO" and
	   "SIGFOO" refer to the same signal.  The string form of SIGNAL is
	   recommended for portability because the same signal may have
	   different numbers in different operating systems.

	   A list of signal names supported by the current platform can be
	   found in $Config{sig_name}, which is provided by the "Config"
	   module. See Config for more details.

	   A negative signal name is the same as a negative signal number,
	   killing process groups instead of processes.	 For example, "kill
	   '-KILL', $pgrp" and "kill -9, $pgrp" will send "SIGKILL" to the
	   entire process group specified. That means you usually want to use
	   positive not negative signals.

	   If SIGNAL is either the number 0 or the string "ZERO" (or
	   "SIGZZERO"), no signal is sent to the process, but "kill" checks
	   whether it's possible to send a signal to it (that means, to be
	   brief, that the process is owned by the same user, or we are the
	   super-user).	 This is useful to check that a child process is still
	   alive (even if only as a zombie) and hasn't changed its UID.	 See
	   perlport for notes on the portability of this construct.

	   The behavior of kill when a PROCESS number is zero or negative
	   depends on the operating system.  For example, on POSIX-conforming
	   systems, zero will signal the current process group, -1 will signal
	   all processes, and any other negative PROCESS number will act as a
	   negative signal number and kill the entire process group specified.

	   If both the SIGNAL and the PROCESS are negative, the results are
	   undefined.  A warning may be produced in a future version.

	   See "Signals" in perlipc for more details.

	   On some platforms such as Windows where the fork() system call is
	   not available.  Perl can be built to emulate fork() at the
	   interpreter level.  This emulation has limitations related to kill
	   that have to be considered, for code running on Windows and in code
	   intended to be portable.

	   See perlfork for more details.

	   If there is no LIST of processes, no signal is sent, and the return
	   value is 0.	This form is sometimes used, however, because it
	   causes tainting checks to be run.  But see "Laundering and
	   Detecting Tainted Data" in perlsec.

	   Portability issues: "kill" in perlport.

       last LABEL
       last EXPR
       last
	   The "last" command is like the "break" statement in C (as used in
	   loops); it immediately exits the loop in question.  If the LABEL is
	   omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing loop.	 The
	   "last EXPR" form, available starting in Perl 5.18.0, allows a label
	   name to be computed at run time, and is otherwise identical to
	   "last LABEL".  The "continue" block, if any, is not executed:

	       LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
		   last LINE if /^$/;  # exit when done with header
		   #...
	       }

	   "last" cannot be used to exit a block that returns a value such as
	   "eval {}", "sub {}", or "do {}", and should not be used to exit a
	   grep() or map() operation.

	   Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop
	   that executes once.	Thus "last" can be used to effect an early
	   exit out of such a block.

	   See also "continue" for an illustration of how "last", "next", and
	   "redo" work.

	   Unlike most named operators, this has the same precedence as
	   assignment.	It is also exempt from the looks-like-a-function rule,
	   so "last ("foo")."bar"" will cause "bar" to be part of the argument
	   to "last".

       lc EXPR
       lc  Returns a lowercased version of EXPR.  This is the internal
	   function implementing the "\L" escape in double-quoted strings.

	   If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.

	   What gets returned depends on several factors:

	   If "use bytes" is in effect:
	       The results follow ASCII semantics.  Only characters "A-Z"
	       change, to "a-z" respectively.

	   Otherwise, if "use locale" (but not "use locale ':not_characters'")
	   is in effect:
	       Respects current LC_CTYPE locale for code points < 256; and
	       uses Unicode semantics for the remaining code points (this last
	       can only happen if the UTF8 flag is also set).  See perllocale.

	       A deficiency in this is that case changes that cross the
	       255/256 boundary are not well-defined.  For example, the lower
	       case of LATIN CAPITAL LETTER SHARP S (U+1E9E) in Unicode
	       semantics is U+00DF (on ASCII platforms).   But under "use
	       locale", the lower case of U+1E9E is itself, because 0xDF may
	       not be LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S in the current locale, and
	       Perl has no way of knowing if that character even exists in the
	       locale, much less what code point it is.	 Perl returns the
	       input character unchanged, for all instances (and there aren't
	       many) where the 255/256 boundary would otherwise be crossed.

	   Otherwise, If EXPR has the UTF8 flag set:
	       Unicode semantics are used for the case change.

	   Otherwise, if "use feature 'unicode_strings'" or "use locale
	   ':not_characters'" is in effect:
	       Unicode semantics are used for the case change.

	   Otherwise:
	       ASCII semantics are used for the case change.  The lowercase of
	       any character outside the ASCII range is the character itself.

       lcfirst EXPR
       lcfirst
	   Returns the value of EXPR with the first character lowercased.
	   This is the internal function implementing the "\l" escape in
	   double-quoted strings.

	   If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.

	   This function behaves the same way under various pragmata, such as
	   in a locale, as "lc" does.

       length EXPR
       length
	   Returns the length in characters of the value of EXPR.  If EXPR is
	   omitted, returns the length of $_.  If EXPR is undefined, returns
	   "undef".

	   This function cannot be used on an entire array or hash to find out
	   how many elements these have.  For that, use "scalar @array" and
	   "scalar keys %hash", respectively.

	   Like all Perl character operations, length() normally deals in
	   logical characters, not physical bytes.  For how many bytes a
	   string encoded as UTF-8 would take up, use
	   "length(Encode::encode_utf8(EXPR))" (you'll have to "use Encode"
	   first).  See Encode and perlunicode.

       __LINE__
	   A special token that compiles to the current line number.

       link OLDFILE,NEWFILE
	   Creates a new filename linked to the old filename.  Returns true
	   for success, false otherwise.

	   Portability issues: "link" in perlport.

       listen SOCKET,QUEUESIZE
	   Does the same thing that the listen(2) system call does.  Returns
	   true if it succeeded, false otherwise.  See the example in
	   "Sockets: Client/Server Communication" in perlipc.

       local EXPR
	   You really probably want to be using "my" instead, because "local"
	   isn't what most people think of as "local".	See "Private Variables
	   via my()" in perlsub for details.

	   A local modifies the listed variables to be local to the enclosing
	   block, file, or eval.  If more than one value is listed, the list
	   must be placed in parentheses.  See "Temporary Values via local()"
	   in perlsub for details, including issues with tied arrays and
	   hashes.

	   The "delete local EXPR" construct can also be used to localize the
	   deletion of array/hash elements to the current block.  See
	   "Localized deletion of elements of composite types" in perlsub.

       localtime EXPR
       localtime
	   Converts a time as returned by the time function to a 9-element
	   list with the time analyzed for the local time zone.	 Typically
	   used as follows:

	       #  0    1    2	  3	4    5	   6	 7     8
	       ($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday,$isdst) =
							   localtime(time);

	   All list elements are numeric and come straight out of the C
	   `struct tm'.	 $sec, $min, and $hour are the seconds, minutes, and
	   hours of the specified time.

	   $mday is the day of the month and $mon the month in the range
	   0..11, with 0 indicating January and 11 indicating December.	 This
	   makes it easy to get a month name from a list:

	       my @abbr = qw(Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec);
	       print "$abbr[$mon] $mday";
	       # $mon=9, $mday=18 gives "Oct 18"

	   $year contains the number of years since 1900.  To get a 4-digit
	   year write:

	       $year += 1900;

	   To get the last two digits of the year (e.g., "01" in 2001) do:

	       $year = sprintf("%02d", $year % 100);

	   $wday is the day of the week, with 0 indicating Sunday and 3
	   indicating Wednesday.  $yday is the day of the year, in the range
	   0..364 (or 0..365 in leap years.)

	   $isdst is true if the specified time occurs during Daylight Saving
	   Time, false otherwise.

	   If EXPR is omitted, "localtime()" uses the current time (as
	   returned by time(3)).

	   In scalar context, "localtime()" returns the ctime(3) value:

	       $now_string = localtime;	 # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"

	   The format of this scalar value is not locale-dependent but built
	   into Perl.  For GMT instead of local time use the "gmtime" builtin.
	   See also the "Time::Local" module (for converting seconds, minutes,
	   hours, and such back to the integer value returned by time()), and
	   the POSIX module's strftime(3) and mktime(3) functions.

	   To get somewhat similar but locale-dependent date strings, set up
	   your locale environment variables appropriately (please see
	   perllocale) and try for example:

	       use POSIX qw(strftime);
	       $now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", localtime;
	       # or for GMT formatted appropriately for your locale:
	       $now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", gmtime;

	   Note that the %a and %b, the short forms of the day of the week and
	   the month of the year, may not necessarily be three characters
	   wide.

	   The Time::gmtime and Time::localtime modules provide a convenient,
	   by-name access mechanism to the gmtime() and localtime() functions,
	   respectively.

	   For a comprehensive date and time representation look at the
	   DateTime module on CPAN.

	   Portability issues: "localtime" in perlport.

       lock THING
	   This function places an advisory lock on a shared variable or
	   referenced object contained in THING until the lock goes out of
	   scope.

	   The value returned is the scalar itself, if the argument is a
	   scalar, or a reference, if the argument is a hash, array or
	   subroutine.

	   lock() is a "weak keyword" : this means that if you've defined a
	   function by this name (before any calls to it), that function will
	   be called instead.  If you are not under "use threads::shared" this
	   does nothing.  See threads::shared.

       log EXPR
       log Returns the natural logarithm (base e) of EXPR.  If EXPR is
	   omitted, returns the log of $_.  To get the log of another base,
	   use basic algebra: The base-N log of a number is equal to the
	   natural log of that number divided by the natural log of N.	For
	   example:

	       sub log10 {
		   my $n = shift;
		   return log($n)/log(10);
	       }

	   See also "exp" for the inverse operation.

       lstat FILEHANDLE
       lstat EXPR
       lstat DIRHANDLE
       lstat
	   Does the same thing as the "stat" function (including setting the
	   special "_" filehandle) but stats a symbolic link instead of the
	   file the symbolic link points to.  If symbolic links are
	   unimplemented on your system, a normal "stat" is done.  For much
	   more detailed information, please see the documentation for "stat".

	   If EXPR is omitted, stats $_.

	   Portability issues: "lstat" in perlport.

       m// The match operator.	See "Regexp Quote-Like Operators" in perlop.

       map BLOCK LIST
       map EXPR,LIST
	   Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally
	   setting $_ to each element) and returns the list value composed of
	   the results of each such evaluation.	 In scalar context, returns
	   the total number of elements so generated.  Evaluates BLOCK or EXPR
	   in list context, so each element of LIST may produce zero, one, or
	   more elements in the returned value.

	       @chars = map(chr, @numbers);

	   translates a list of numbers to the corresponding characters.

	       my @squares = map { $_ * $_ } @numbers;

	   translates a list of numbers to their squared values.

	       my @squares = map { $_ > 5 ? ($_ * $_) : () } @numbers;

	   shows that number of returned elements can differ from the number
	   of input elements.  To omit an element, return an empty list ().
	   This could also be achieved by writing

	       my @squares = map { $_ * $_ } grep { $_ > 5 } @numbers;

	   which makes the intention more clear.

	   Map always returns a list, which can be assigned to a hash such
	   that the elements become key/value pairs.  See perldata for more
	   details.

	       %hash = map { get_a_key_for($_) => $_ } @array;

	   is just a funny way to write

	       %hash = ();
	       foreach (@array) {
		   $hash{get_a_key_for($_)} = $_;
	       }

	   Note that $_ is an alias to the list value, so it can be used to
	   modify the elements of the LIST.  While this is useful and
	   supported, it can cause bizarre results if the elements of LIST are
	   not variables.  Using a regular "foreach" loop for this purpose
	   would be clearer in most cases.  See also "grep" for an array
	   composed of those items of the original list for which the BLOCK or
	   EXPR evaluates to true.

	   If $_ is lexical in the scope where the "map" appears (because it
	   has been declared with the deprecated "my $_" construct), then, in
	   addition to being locally aliased to the list elements, $_ keeps
	   being lexical inside the block; that is, it can't be seen from the
	   outside, avoiding any potential side-effects.

	   "{" starts both hash references and blocks, so "map { ..." could be
	   either the start of map BLOCK LIST or map EXPR, LIST.  Because Perl
	   doesn't look ahead for the closing "}" it has to take a guess at
	   which it's dealing with based on what it finds just after the "{".
	   Usually it gets it right, but if it doesn't it won't realize
	   something is wrong until it gets to the "}" and encounters the
	   missing (or unexpected) comma.  The syntax error will be reported
	   close to the "}", but you'll need to change something near the "{"
	   such as using a unary "+" to give Perl some help:

	       %hash = map {  "\L$_" => 1  } @array # perl guesses EXPR. wrong
	       %hash = map { +"\L$_" => 1  } @array # perl guesses BLOCK. right
	       %hash = map { ("\L$_" => 1) } @array # this also works
	       %hash = map {  lc($_) => 1  } @array # as does this.
	       %hash = map +( lc($_) => 1 ), @array # this is EXPR and works!

	       %hash = map  ( lc($_), 1 ),   @array # evaluates to (1, @array)

	   or to force an anon hash constructor use "+{":

	       @hashes = map +{ lc($_) => 1 }, @array # EXPR, so needs
						      # comma at end

	   to get a list of anonymous hashes each with only one entry apiece.

       mkdir FILENAME,MASK
       mkdir FILENAME
       mkdir
	   Creates the directory specified by FILENAME, with permissions
	   specified by MASK (as modified by "umask").	If it succeeds it
	   returns true; otherwise it returns false and sets $! (errno).  MASK
	   defaults to 0777 if omitted, and FILENAME defaults to $_ if
	   omitted.

	   In general, it is better to create directories with a permissive
	   MASK and let the user modify that with their "umask" than it is to
	   supply a restrictive MASK and give the user no way to be more
	   permissive.	The exceptions to this rule are when the file or
	   directory should be kept private (mail files, for instance).	 The
	   perlfunc(1) entry on "umask" discusses the choice of MASK in more
	   detail.

	   Note that according to the POSIX 1003.1-1996 the FILENAME may have
	   any number of trailing slashes.  Some operating and filesystems do
	   not get this right, so Perl automatically removes all trailing
	   slashes to keep everyone happy.

	   To recursively create a directory structure, look at the "mkpath"
	   function of the File::Path module.

       msgctl ID,CMD,ARG
	   Calls the System V IPC function msgctl(2).  You'll probably have to
	   say

	       use IPC::SysV;

	   first to get the correct constant definitions.  If CMD is
	   "IPC_STAT", then ARG must be a variable that will hold the returned
	   "msqid_ds" structure.  Returns like "ioctl": the undefined value
	   for error, "0 but true" for zero, or the actual return value
	   otherwise.  See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc and the documentation
	   for "IPC::SysV" and "IPC::Semaphore".

	   Portability issues: "msgctl" in perlport.

       msgget KEY,FLAGS
	   Calls the System V IPC function msgget(2).  Returns the message
	   queue id, or "undef" on error.  See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc and
	   the documentation for "IPC::SysV" and "IPC::Msg".

	   Portability issues: "msgget" in perlport.

       msgrcv ID,VAR,SIZE,TYPE,FLAGS
	   Calls the System V IPC function msgrcv to receive a message from
	   message queue ID into variable VAR with a maximum message size of
	   SIZE.  Note that when a message is received, the message type as a
	   native long integer will be the first thing in VAR, followed by the
	   actual message.  This packing may be opened with "unpack("l! a*")".
	   Taints the variable.	 Returns true if successful, false on error.
	   See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc and the documentation for
	   "IPC::SysV" and "IPC::SysV::Msg".

	   Portability issues: "msgrcv" in perlport.

       msgsnd ID,MSG,FLAGS
	   Calls the System V IPC function msgsnd to send the message MSG to
	   the message queue ID.  MSG must begin with the native long integer
	   message type, be followed by the length of the actual message, and
	   then finally the message itself.  This kind of packing can be
	   achieved with "pack("l! a*", $type, $message)".  Returns true if
	   successful, false on error.	See also the "IPC::SysV" and
	   "IPC::SysV::Msg" documentation.

	   Portability issues: "msgsnd" in perlport.

       my EXPR
       my TYPE EXPR
       my EXPR : ATTRS
       my TYPE EXPR : ATTRS
	   A "my" declares the listed variables to be local (lexically) to the
	   enclosing block, file, or "eval".  If more than one value is
	   listed, the list must be placed in parentheses.

	   The exact semantics and interface of TYPE and ATTRS are still
	   evolving.  TYPE is currently bound to the use of the "fields"
	   pragma, and attributes are handled using the "attributes" pragma,
	   or starting from Perl 5.8.0 also via the "Attribute::Handlers"
	   module.  See "Private Variables via my()" in perlsub for details,
	   and fields, attributes, and Attribute::Handlers.

       next LABEL
       next EXPR
       next
	   The "next" command is like the "continue" statement in C; it starts
	   the next iteration of the loop:

	       LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
		   next LINE if /^#/;  # discard comments
		   #...
	       }

	   Note that if there were a "continue" block on the above, it would
	   get executed even on discarded lines.  If LABEL is omitted, the
	   command refers to the innermost enclosing loop.  The "next EXPR"
	   form, available as of Perl 5.18.0, allows a label name to be
	   computed at run time, being otherwise identical to "next LABEL".

	   "next" cannot be used to exit a block which returns a value such as
	   "eval {}", "sub {}", or "do {}", and should not be used to exit a
	   grep() or map() operation.

	   Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop
	   that executes once.	Thus "next" will exit such a block early.

	   See also "continue" for an illustration of how "last", "next", and
	   "redo" work.

	   Unlike most named operators, this has the same precedence as
	   assignment.	It is also exempt from the looks-like-a-function rule,
	   so "next ("foo")."bar"" will cause "bar" to be part of the argument
	   to "next".

       no MODULE VERSION LIST
       no MODULE VERSION
       no MODULE LIST
       no MODULE
       no VERSION
	   See the "use" function, of which "no" is the opposite.

       oct EXPR
       oct Interprets EXPR as an octal string and returns the corresponding
	   value.  (If EXPR happens to start off with "0x", interprets it as a
	   hex string.	If EXPR starts off with "0b", it is interpreted as a
	   binary string.  Leading whitespace is ignored in all three cases.)
	   The following will handle decimal, binary, octal, and hex in
	   standard Perl notation:

	       $val = oct($val) if $val =~ /^0/;

	   If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.	  To go the other way (produce a
	   number in octal), use sprintf() or printf():

	       $dec_perms = (stat("filename"))[2] & 07777;
	       $oct_perm_str = sprintf "%o", $perms;

	   The oct() function is commonly used when a string such as 644 needs
	   to be converted into a file mode, for example.  Although Perl
	   automatically converts strings into numbers as needed, this
	   automatic conversion assumes base 10.

	   Leading white space is ignored without warning, as too are any
	   trailing non-digits, such as a decimal point ("oct" only handles
	   non-negative integers, not negative integers or floating point).

       open FILEHANDLE,EXPR
       open FILEHANDLE,MODE,EXPR
       open FILEHANDLE,MODE,EXPR,LIST
       open FILEHANDLE,MODE,REFERENCE
       open FILEHANDLE
	   Opens the file whose filename is given by EXPR, and associates it
	   with FILEHANDLE.

	   Simple examples to open a file for reading:

	       open(my $fh, "<", "input.txt")
		   or die "cannot open < input.txt: $!";

	   and for writing:

	       open(my $fh, ">", "output.txt")
		   or die "cannot open > output.txt: $!";

	   (The following is a comprehensive reference to open(): for a
	   gentler introduction you may consider perlopentut.)

	   If FILEHANDLE is an undefined scalar variable (or array or hash
	   element), a new filehandle is autovivified, meaning that the
	   variable is assigned a reference to a newly allocated anonymous
	   filehandle.	Otherwise if FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is
	   the real filehandle.	 (This is considered a symbolic reference, so
	   "use strict "refs"" should not be in effect.)

	   If EXPR is omitted, the global (package) scalar variable of the
	   same name as the FILEHANDLE contains the filename.  (Note that
	   lexical variables--those declared with "my" or "state"--will not
	   work for this purpose; so if you're using "my" or "state", specify
	   EXPR in your call to open.)

	   If three (or more) arguments are specified, the open mode
	   (including optional encoding) in the second argument are distinct
	   from the filename in the third.  If MODE is "<" or nothing, the
	   file is opened for input.  If MODE is ">", the file is opened for
	   output, with existing files first being truncated ("clobbered") and
	   nonexisting files newly created.  If MODE is ">>", the file is
	   opened for appending, again being created if necessary.

	   You can put a "+" in front of the ">" or "<" to indicate that you
	   want both read and write access to the file; thus "+<" is almost
	   always preferred for read/write updates--the "+>" mode would
	   clobber the file first.  You can't usually use either read-write
	   mode for updating textfiles, since they have variable-length
	   records.  See the -i switch in perlrun for a better approach.  The
	   file is created with permissions of 0666 modified by the process's
	   "umask" value.

	   These various prefixes correspond to the fopen(3) modes of "r",
	   "r+", "w", "w+", "a", and "a+".

	   In the one- and two-argument forms of the call, the mode and
	   filename should be concatenated (in that order), preferably
	   separated by white space.  You can--but shouldn't--omit the mode in
	   these forms when that mode is "<".  It is always safe to use the
	   two-argument form of "open" if the filename argument is a known
	   literal.

	   For three or more arguments if MODE is "|-", the filename is
	   interpreted as a command to which output is to be piped, and if
	   MODE is "-|", the filename is interpreted as a command that pipes
	   output to us.  In the two-argument (and one-argument) form, one
	   should replace dash ("-") with the command.	See "Using open() for
	   IPC" in perlipc for more examples of this.  (You are not allowed to
	   "open" to a command that pipes both in and out, but see IPC::Open2,
	   IPC::Open3, and "Bidirectional Communication with Another Process"
	   in perlipc for alternatives.)

	   In the form of pipe opens taking three or more arguments, if LIST
	   is specified (extra arguments after the command name) then LIST
	   becomes arguments to the command invoked if the platform supports
	   it.	The meaning of "open" with more than three arguments for non-
	   pipe modes is not yet defined, but experimental "layers" may give
	   extra LIST arguments meaning.

	   In the two-argument (and one-argument) form, opening "<-" or "-"
	   opens STDIN and opening ">-" opens STDOUT.

	   You may (and usually should) use the three-argument form of open to
	   specify I/O layers (sometimes referred to as "disciplines") to
	   apply to the handle that affect how the input and output are
	   processed (see open and PerlIO for more details).  For example:

	     open(my $fh, "<:encoding(UTF-8)", "filename")
	       || die "can't open UTF-8 encoded filename: $!";

	   opens the UTF8-encoded file containing Unicode characters; see
	   perluniintro.  Note that if layers are specified in the three-
	   argument form, then default layers stored in ${^OPEN} (see perlvar;
	   usually set by the open pragma or the switch -CioD) are ignored.
	   Those layers will also be ignored if you specifying a colon with no
	   name following it.  In that case the default layer for the
	   operating system (:raw on Unix, :crlf on Windows) is used.

	   Open returns nonzero on success, the undefined value otherwise.  If
	   the "open" involved a pipe, the return value happens to be the pid
	   of the subprocess.

	   If you're running Perl on a system that distinguishes between text
	   files and binary files, then you should check out "binmode" for
	   tips for dealing with this.	The key distinction between systems
	   that need "binmode" and those that don't is their text file
	   formats.  Systems like Unix, Mac OS, and Plan 9, that end lines
	   with a single character and encode that character in C as "\n" do
	   not need "binmode".	The rest need it.

	   When opening a file, it's seldom a good idea to continue if the
	   request failed, so "open" is frequently used with "die".  Even if
	   "die" won't do what you want (say, in a CGI script, where you want
	   to format a suitable error message (but there are modules that can
	   help with that problem)) always check the return value from opening
	   a file.

	   As a special case the three-argument form with a read/write mode
	   and the third argument being "undef":

	       open(my $tmp, "+>", undef) or die ...

	   opens a filehandle to an anonymous temporary file.  Also using "+<"
	   works for symmetry, but you really should consider writing
	   something to the temporary file first.  You will need to seek() to
	   do the reading.

	   Perl is built using PerlIO by default; Unless you've changed this
	   (such as building Perl with "Configure -Uuseperlio"), you can open
	   filehandles directly to Perl scalars via:

	       open($fh, ">", \$variable) || ..

	   To (re)open "STDOUT" or "STDERR" as an in-memory file, close it
	   first:

	       close STDOUT;
	       open(STDOUT, ">", \$variable)
		   or die "Can't open STDOUT: $!";

	   General examples:

	       $ARTICLE = 100;
	       open(ARTICLE) or die "Can't find article $ARTICLE: $!\n";
	       while (<ARTICLE>) {...

	       open(LOG, ">>/usr/spool/news/twitlog");	# (log is reserved)
	       # if the open fails, output is discarded

	       open(my $dbase, "+<", "dbase.mine")	# open for update
		   or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!";

	       open(my $dbase, "+<dbase.mine")		# ditto
		   or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!";

	       open(ARTICLE, "-|", "caesar <$article")	# decrypt article
		   or die "Can't start caesar: $!";

	       open(ARTICLE, "caesar <$article |")	# ditto
		   or die "Can't start caesar: $!";

	       open(EXTRACT, "|sort >Tmp$$")		# $$ is our process id
		   or die "Can't start sort: $!";

	       # in-memory files
	       open(MEMORY, ">", \$var)
		   or die "Can't open memory file: $!";
	       print MEMORY "foo!\n";		   # output will appear in $var

	       # process argument list of files along with any includes

	       foreach $file (@ARGV) {
		   process($file, "fh00");
	       }

	       sub process {
		   my($filename, $input) = @_;
		   $input++;	# this is a string increment
		   unless (open($input, "<", $filename)) {
		       print STDERR "Can't open $filename: $!\n";
		       return;
		   }

		   local $_;
		   while (<$input>) {	 # note use of indirection
		       if (/^#include "(.*)"/) {
			   process($1, $input);
			   next;
		       }
		       #...	     # whatever
		   }
	       }

	   See perliol for detailed info on PerlIO.

	   You may also, in the Bourne shell tradition, specify an EXPR
	   beginning with ">&", in which case the rest of the string is
	   interpreted as the name of a filehandle (or file descriptor, if
	   numeric) to be duped (as dup(2)) and opened.	 You may use "&" after
	   ">", ">>", "<", "+>", "+>>", and "+<".  The mode you specify should
	   match the mode of the original filehandle.  (Duping a filehandle
	   does not take into account any existing contents of IO buffers.)
	   If you use the three-argument form, then you can pass either a
	   number, the name of a filehandle, or the normal "reference to a
	   glob".

	   Here is a script that saves, redirects, and restores "STDOUT" and
	   "STDERR" using various methods:

	       #!/usr/bin/perl
	       open(my $oldout, ">&STDOUT")	or die "Can't dup STDOUT: $!";
	       open(OLDERR,	">&", \*STDERR) or die "Can't dup STDERR: $!";

	       open(STDOUT, '>', "foo.out") or die "Can't redirect STDOUT: $!";
	       open(STDERR, ">&STDOUT")	    or die "Can't dup STDOUT: $!";

	       select STDERR; $| = 1;  # make unbuffered
	       select STDOUT; $| = 1;  # make unbuffered

	       print STDOUT "stdout 1\n";  # this works for
	       print STDERR "stderr 1\n";  # subprocesses too

	       open(STDOUT, ">&", $oldout) or die "Can't dup \$oldout: $!";
	       open(STDERR, ">&OLDERR")	   or die "Can't dup OLDERR: $!";

	       print STDOUT "stdout 2\n";
	       print STDERR "stderr 2\n";

	   If you specify '<&=X', where "X" is a file descriptor number or a
	   filehandle, then Perl will do an equivalent of C's "fdopen" of that
	   file descriptor (and not call dup(2)); this is more parsimonious of
	   file descriptors.  For example:

	       # open for input, reusing the fileno of $fd
	       open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=$fd")

	   or

	       open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=", $fd)

	   or

	       # open for append, using the fileno of OLDFH
	       open(FH, ">>&=", OLDFH)

	   or

	       open(FH, ">>&=OLDFH")

	   Being parsimonious on filehandles is also useful (besides being
	   parsimonious) for example when something is dependent on file
	   descriptors, like for example locking using flock().	 If you do
	   just "open(A, ">>&B")", the filehandle A will not have the same
	   file descriptor as B, and therefore flock(A) will not flock(B) nor
	   vice versa.	But with "open(A, ">>&=B")", the filehandles will
	   share the same underlying system file descriptor.

	   Note that under Perls older than 5.8.0, Perl uses the standard C
	   library's' fdopen() to implement the "=" functionality.  On many
	   Unix systems, fdopen() fails when file descriptors exceed a certain
	   value, typically 255.  For Perls 5.8.0 and later, PerlIO is (most
	   often) the default.

	   You can see whether your Perl was built with PerlIO by running
	   "perl -V" and looking for the "useperlio=" line.  If "useperlio" is
	   "define", you have PerlIO; otherwise you don't.

	   If you open a pipe on the command "-" (that is, specify either "|-"
	   or "-|" with the one- or two-argument forms of "open"), an implicit
	   "fork" is done, so "open" returns twice: in the parent process it
	   returns the pid of the child process, and in the child process it
	   returns (a defined) 0.  Use "defined($pid)" or "//" to determine
	   whether the open was successful.

	   For example, use either

	       $child_pid = open(FROM_KID, "-|")   // die "can't fork: $!";

	   or

	       $child_pid = open(TO_KID,   "|-")   // die "can't fork: $!";

	   followed by

	       if ($child_pid) {
		   # am the parent:
		   # either write TO_KID or else read FROM_KID
		   ...
		  waitpid $child_pid, 0;
	       } else {
		   # am the child; use STDIN/STDOUT normally
		   ...
		   exit;
	       }

	   The filehandle behaves normally for the parent, but I/O to that
	   filehandle is piped from/to the STDOUT/STDIN of the child process.
	   In the child process, the filehandle isn't opened--I/O happens
	   from/to the new STDOUT/STDIN.  Typically this is used like the
	   normal piped open when you want to exercise more control over just
	   how the pipe command gets executed, such as when running setuid and
	   you don't want to have to scan shell commands for metacharacters.

	   The following blocks are more or less equivalent:

	       open(FOO, "|tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'");
	       open(FOO, "|-", "tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'");
	       open(FOO, "|-") || exec 'tr', '[a-z]', '[A-Z]';
	       open(FOO, "|-", "tr", '[a-z]', '[A-Z]');

	       open(FOO, "cat -n '$file'|");
	       open(FOO, "-|", "cat -n '$file'");
	       open(FOO, "-|") || exec "cat", "-n", $file;
	       open(FOO, "-|", "cat", "-n", $file);

	   The last two examples in each block show the pipe as "list form",
	   which is not yet supported on all platforms.	 A good rule of thumb
	   is that if your platform has a real "fork()" (in other words, if
	   your platform is Unix, including Linux and MacOS X), you can use
	   the list form.  You would want to use the list form of the pipe so
	   you can pass literal arguments to the command without risk of the
	   shell interpreting any shell metacharacters in them.	 However, this
	   also bars you from opening pipes to commands that intentionally
	   contain shell metacharacters, such as:

	       open(FOO, "|cat -n | expand -4 | lpr")
		   // die "Can't open pipeline to lpr: $!";

	   See "Safe Pipe Opens" in perlipc for more examples of this.

	   Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for output before any
	   operation that may do a fork, but this may not be supported on some
	   platforms (see perlport).  To be safe, you may need to set $|
	   ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the "autoflush()" method of
	   "IO::Handle" on any open handles.

	   On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag
	   will be set for the newly opened file descriptor as determined by
	   the value of $^F.  See "$^F" in perlvar.

	   Closing any piped filehandle causes the parent process to wait for
	   the child to finish, then returns the status value in $? and
	   "${^CHILD_ERROR_NATIVE}".

	   The filename passed to the one- and two-argument forms of open()
	   will have leading and trailing whitespace deleted and normal
	   redirection characters honored.  This property, known as "magic
	   open", can often be used to good effect.  A user could specify a
	   filename of "rsh cat file |", or you could change certain filenames
	   as needed:

	       $filename =~ s/(.*\.gz)\s*$/gzip -dc < $1|/;
	       open(FH, $filename) or die "Can't open $filename: $!";

	   Use the three-argument form to open a file with arbitrary weird
	   characters in it,

	       open(FOO, "<", $file)
		   || die "can't open < $file: $!";

	   otherwise it's necessary to protect any leading and trailing
	   whitespace:

	       $file =~ s#^(\s)#./$1#;
	       open(FOO, "< $file\0")
		   || die "open failed: $!";

	   (this may not work on some bizarre filesystems).  One should
	   conscientiously choose between the magic and three-argument form of
	   open():

	       open(IN, $ARGV[0]) || die "can't open $ARGV[0]: $!";

	   will allow the user to specify an argument of the form "rsh cat
	   file |", but will not work on a filename that happens to have a
	   trailing space, while

	       open(IN, "<", $ARGV[0])
		   || die "can't open < $ARGV[0]: $!";

	   will have exactly the opposite restrictions.

	   If you want a "real" C "open" (see open(2) on your system), then
	   you should use the "sysopen" function, which involves no such magic
	   (but may use subtly different filemodes than Perl open(), which is
	   mapped to C fopen()).  This is another way to protect your
	   filenames from interpretation.  For example:

	       use IO::Handle;
	       sysopen(HANDLE, $path, O_RDWR|O_CREAT|O_EXCL)
		   or die "sysopen $path: $!";
	       $oldfh = select(HANDLE); $| = 1; select($oldfh);
	       print HANDLE "stuff $$\n";
	       seek(HANDLE, 0, 0);
	       print "File contains: ", <HANDLE>;

	   Using the constructor from the "IO::Handle" package (or one of its
	   subclasses, such as "IO::File" or "IO::Socket"), you can generate
	   anonymous filehandles that have the scope of the variables used to
	   hold them, then automatically (but silently) close once their
	   reference counts become zero, typically at scope exit:

	       use IO::File;
	       #...
	       sub read_myfile_munged {
		   my $ALL = shift;
		   # or just leave it undef to autoviv
		   my $handle = IO::File->new;
		   open($handle, "<", "myfile") or die "myfile: $!";
		   $first = <$handle>
		       or return ();	 # Automatically closed here.
		   mung($first) or die "mung failed";  # Or here.
		   return (first, <$handle>) if $ALL;  # Or here.
		   return $first;		       # Or here.
	       }

	   WARNING: The previous example has a bug because the automatic close
	   that happens when the refcount on "handle" reaches zero does not
	   properly detect and report failures.	 Always close the handle
	   yourself and inspect the return value.

	       close($handle)
		   || warn "close failed: $!";

	   See "seek" for some details about mixing reading and writing.

	   Portability issues: "open" in perlport.

       opendir DIRHANDLE,EXPR
	   Opens a directory named EXPR for processing by "readdir",
	   "telldir", "seekdir", "rewinddir", and "closedir".  Returns true if
	   successful.	DIRHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used
	   as an indirect dirhandle, usually the real dirhandle name.  If
	   DIRHANDLE is an undefined scalar variable (or array or hash
	   element), the variable is assigned a reference to a new anonymous
	   dirhandle; that is, it's autovivified.  DIRHANDLEs have their own
	   namespace separate from FILEHANDLEs.

	   See the example at "readdir".

       ord EXPR
       ord Returns the numeric value of the first character of EXPR.  If EXPR
	   is an empty string, returns 0.  If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.	 (Note
	   character, not byte.)

	   For the reverse, see "chr".	See perlunicode for more about
	   Unicode.

       our EXPR
       our TYPE EXPR
       our EXPR : ATTRS
       our TYPE EXPR : ATTRS
	   "our" makes a lexical alias to a package variable of the same name
	   in the current package for use within the current lexical scope.

	   "our" has the same scoping rules as "my" or "state", but "our" only
	   declares an alias, whereas "my" or "state" both declare a variable
	   name and allocate storage for that name within the current scope.

	   This means that when "use strict 'vars'" is in effect, "our" lets
	   you use a package variable without qualifying it with the package
	   name, but only within the lexical scope of the "our" declaration.
	   In this way, "our" differs from "use vars", which allows use of an
	   unqualified name only within the affected package, but across
	   scopes.

	   If more than one value is listed, the list must be placed in
	   parentheses.

	       our $foo;
	       our($bar, $baz);

	   An "our" declaration declares an alias for a package variable that
	   will be visible across its entire lexical scope, even across
	   package boundaries.	The package in which the variable is entered
	   is determined at the point of the declaration, not at the point of
	   use.	 This means the following behavior holds:

	       package Foo;
	       our $bar;      # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope
	       $bar = 20;

	       package Bar;
	       print $bar;    # prints 20, as it refers to $Foo::bar

	   Multiple "our" declarations with the same name in the same lexical
	   scope are allowed if they are in different packages.	 If they
	   happen to be in the same package, Perl will emit warnings if you
	   have asked for them, just like multiple "my" declarations.  Unlike
	   a second "my" declaration, which will bind the name to a fresh
	   variable, a second "our" declaration in the same package, in the
	   same scope, is merely redundant.

	       use warnings;
	       package Foo;
	       our $bar;      # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope
	       $bar = 20;

	       package Bar;
	       our $bar = 30; # declares $Bar::bar for rest of lexical scope
	       print $bar;    # prints 30

	       our $bar;      # emits warning but has no other effect
	       print $bar;    # still prints 30

	   An "our" declaration may also have a list of attributes associated
	   with it.

	   The exact semantics and interface of TYPE and ATTRS are still
	   evolving.  TYPE is currently bound to the use of the "fields"
	   pragma, and attributes are handled using the "attributes" pragma,
	   or, starting from Perl 5.8.0, also via the "Attribute::Handlers"
	   module.  See "Private Variables via my()" in perlsub for details,
	   and fields, attributes, and Attribute::Handlers.

       pack TEMPLATE,LIST
	   Takes a LIST of values and converts it into a string using the
	   rules given by the TEMPLATE.	 The resulting string is the
	   concatenation of the converted values.  Typically, each converted
	   value looks like its machine-level representation.  For example, on
	   32-bit machines an integer may be represented by a sequence of 4
	   bytes, which	 will in Perl be presented as a string that's 4
	   characters long.

	   See perlpacktut for an introduction to this function.

	   The TEMPLATE is a sequence of characters that give the order and
	   type of values, as follows:

	       a  A string with arbitrary binary data, will be null padded.
	       A  A text (ASCII) string, will be space padded.
	       Z  A null-terminated (ASCIZ) string, will be null padded.

	       b  A bit string (ascending bit order inside each byte,
		  like vec()).
	       B  A bit string (descending bit order inside each byte).
	       h  A hex string (low nybble first).
	       H  A hex string (high nybble first).

	       c  A signed char (8-bit) value.
	       C  An unsigned char (octet) value.
	       W  An unsigned char value (can be greater than 255).

	       s  A signed short (16-bit) value.
	       S  An unsigned short value.

	       l  A signed long (32-bit) value.
	       L  An unsigned long value.

	       q  A signed quad (64-bit) value.
	       Q  An unsigned quad value.
		    (Quads are available only if your system supports 64-bit
		     integer values _and_ if Perl has been compiled to support
		     those.  Raises an exception otherwise.)

	       i  A signed integer value.
	       I  A unsigned integer value.
		    (This 'integer' is _at_least_ 32 bits wide.	 Its exact
		     size depends on what a local C compiler calls 'int'.)

	       n  An unsigned short (16-bit) in "network" (big-endian) order.
	       N  An unsigned long (32-bit) in "network" (big-endian) order.
	       v  An unsigned short (16-bit) in "VAX" (little-endian) order.
	       V  An unsigned long (32-bit) in "VAX" (little-endian) order.

	       j  A Perl internal signed integer value (IV).
	       J  A Perl internal unsigned integer value (UV).

	       f  A single-precision float in native format.
	       d  A double-precision float in native format.

	       F  A Perl internal floating-point value (NV) in native format
	       D  A float of long-double precision in native format.
		    (Long doubles are available only if your system supports
		     long double values _and_ if Perl has been compiled to
		     support those.  Raises an exception otherwise.)

	       p  A pointer to a null-terminated string.
	       P  A pointer to a structure (fixed-length string).

	       u  A uuencoded string.
	       U  A Unicode character number.  Encodes to a character in char-
		  acter mode and UTF-8 (or UTF-EBCDIC in EBCDIC platforms) in
		  byte mode.

	       w  A BER compressed integer (not an ASN.1 BER, see perlpacktut
		  for details).	 Its bytes represent an unsigned integer in
		  base 128, most significant digit first, with as few digits
		  as possible.	Bit eight (the high bit) is set on each byte
		  except the last.

	       x  A null byte (a.k.a ASCII NUL, "\000", chr(0))
	       X  Back up a byte.
	       @  Null-fill or truncate to absolute position, counted from the
		  start of the innermost ()-group.
	       .  Null-fill or truncate to absolute position specified by
		  the value.
	       (  Start of a ()-group.

	   One or more modifiers below may optionally follow certain letters
	   in the TEMPLATE (the second column lists letters for which the
	   modifier is valid):

	       !   sSlLiI     Forces native (short, long, int) sizes instead
			      of fixed (16-/32-bit) sizes.

		   xX	      Make x and X act as alignment commands.

		   nNvV	      Treat integers as signed instead of unsigned.

		   @.	      Specify position as byte offset in the internal
			      representation of the packed string.  Efficient
			      but dangerous.

	       >   sSiIlLqQ   Force big-endian byte-order on the type.
		   jJfFdDpP   (The "big end" touches the construct.)

	       <   sSiIlLqQ   Force little-endian byte-order on the type.
		   jJfFdDpP   (The "little end" touches the construct.)

	   The ">" and "<" modifiers can also be used on "()" groups to force
	   a particular byte-order on all components in that group, including
	   all its subgroups.

	   The following rules apply:

	   ·   Each letter may optionally be followed by a number indicating
	       the repeat count.  A numeric repeat count may optionally be
	       enclosed in brackets, as in "pack("C[80]", @arr)".  The repeat
	       count gobbles that many values from the LIST when used with all
	       format types other than "a", "A", "Z", "b", "B", "h", "H", "@",
	       ".", "x", "X", and "P", where it means something else,
	       described below.	 Supplying a "*" for the repeat count instead
	       of a number means to use however many items are left, except
	       for:

	       ·   "@", "x", and "X", where it is equivalent to 0.

	       ·   <.>, where it means relative to the start of the string.

	       ·   "u", where it is equivalent to 1 (or 45, which here is
		   equivalent).

	       One can replace a numeric repeat count with a template letter
	       enclosed in brackets to use the packed byte length of the
	       bracketed template for the repeat count.

	       For example, the template "x[L]" skips as many bytes as in a
	       packed long, and the template "$t X[$t] $t" unpacks twice
	       whatever $t (when variable-expanded) unpacks.  If the template
	       in brackets contains alignment commands (such as "x![d]"), its
	       packed length is calculated as if the start of the template had
	       the maximal possible alignment.

	       When used with "Z", a "*" as the repeat count is guaranteed to
	       add a trailing null byte, so the resulting string is always one
	       byte longer than the byte length of the item itself.

	       When used with "@", the repeat count represents an offset from
	       the start of the innermost "()" group.

	       When used with ".", the repeat count determines the starting
	       position to calculate the value offset as follows:

	       ·   If the repeat count is 0, it's relative to the current
		   position.

	       ·   If the repeat count is "*", the offset is relative to the
		   start of the packed string.

	       ·   And if it's an integer n, the offset is relative to the
		   start of the nth innermost "( )" group, or to the start of
		   the string if n is bigger then the group level.

	       The repeat count for "u" is interpreted as the maximal number
	       of bytes to encode per line of output, with 0, 1 and 2 replaced
	       by 45.  The repeat count should not be more than 65.

	   ·   The "a", "A", and "Z" types gobble just one value, but pack it
	       as a string of length count, padding with nulls or spaces as
	       needed.	When unpacking, "A" strips trailing whitespace and
	       nulls, "Z" strips everything after the first null, and "a"
	       returns data with no stripping at all.

	       If the value to pack is too long, the result is truncated.  If
	       it's too long and an explicit count is provided, "Z" packs only
	       "$count-1" bytes, followed by a null byte.  Thus "Z" always
	       packs a trailing null, except when the count is 0.

	   ·   Likewise, the "b" and "B" formats pack a string that's that
	       many bits long.	Each such format generates 1 bit of the
	       result.	These are typically followed by a repeat count like
	       "B8" or "B64".

	       Each result bit is based on the least-significant bit of the
	       corresponding input character, i.e., on "ord($char)%2".	In
	       particular, characters "0" and "1" generate bits 0 and 1, as do
	       characters "\000" and "\001".

	       Starting from the beginning of the input string, each 8-tuple
	       of characters is converted to 1 character of output.  With
	       format "b", the first character of the 8-tuple determines the
	       least-significant bit of a character; with format "B", it
	       determines the most-significant bit of a character.

	       If the length of the input string is not evenly divisible by 8,
	       the remainder is packed as if the input string were padded by
	       null characters at the end.  Similarly during unpacking,
	       "extra" bits are ignored.

	       If the input string is longer than needed, remaining characters
	       are ignored.

	       A "*" for the repeat count uses all characters of the input
	       field.  On unpacking, bits are converted to a string of 0s and
	       1s.

	   ·   The "h" and "H" formats pack a string that many nybbles (4-bit
	       groups, representable as hexadecimal digits, "0".."9" "a".."f")
	       long.

	       For each such format, pack() generates 4 bits of result.	 With
	       non-alphabetical characters, the result is based on the 4
	       least-significant bits of the input character, i.e., on
	       "ord($char)%16".	 In particular, characters "0" and "1"
	       generate nybbles 0 and 1, as do bytes "\000" and "\001".	 For
	       characters "a".."f" and "A".."F", the result is compatible with
	       the usual hexadecimal digits, so that "a" and "A" both generate
	       the nybble "0xA==10".  Use only these specific hex characters
	       with this format.

	       Starting from the beginning of the template to pack(), each
	       pair of characters is converted to 1 character of output.  With
	       format "h", the first character of the pair determines the
	       least-significant nybble of the output character; with format
	       "H", it determines the most-significant nybble.

	       If the length of the input string is not even, it behaves as if
	       padded by a null character at the end.  Similarly, "extra"
	       nybbles are ignored during unpacking.

	       If the input string is longer than needed, extra characters are
	       ignored.

	       A "*" for the repeat count uses all characters of the input
	       field.  For unpack(), nybbles are converted to a string of
	       hexadecimal digits.

	   ·   The "p" format packs a pointer to a null-terminated string.
	       You are responsible for ensuring that the string is not a
	       temporary value, as that could potentially get deallocated
	       before you got around to using the packed result.  The "P"
	       format packs a pointer to a structure of the size indicated by
	       the length.  A null pointer is created if the corresponding
	       value for "p" or "P" is "undef"; similarly with unpack(), where
	       a null pointer unpacks into "undef".

	       If your system has a strange pointer size--meaning a pointer is
	       neither as big as an int nor as big as a long--it may not be
	       possible to pack or unpack pointers in big- or little-endian
	       byte order.  Attempting to do so raises an exception.

	   ·   The "/" template character allows packing and unpacking of a
	       sequence of items where the packed structure contains a packed
	       item count followed by the packed items themselves.  This is
	       useful when the structure you're unpacking has encoded the
	       sizes or repeat counts for some of its fields within the
	       structure itself as separate fields.

	       For "pack", you write length-item"/"sequence-item, and the
	       length-item describes how the length value is packed.  Formats
	       likely to be of most use are integer-packing ones like "n" for
	       Java strings, "w" for ASN.1 or SNMP, and "N" for Sun XDR.

	       For "pack", sequence-item may have a repeat count, in which
	       case the minimum of that and the number of available items is
	       used as the argument for length-item.  If it has no repeat
	       count or uses a '*', the number of available items is used.

	       For "unpack", an internal stack of integer arguments unpacked
	       so far is used.	You write "/"sequence-item and the repeat
	       count is obtained by popping off the last element from the
	       stack.  The sequence-item must not have a repeat count.

	       If sequence-item refers to a string type ("A", "a", or "Z"),
	       the length-item is the string length, not the number of
	       strings.	 With an explicit repeat count for pack, the packed
	       string is adjusted to that length.  For example:

		This code:			       gives this result:

		unpack("W/a", "\004Gurusamy")	       ("Guru")
		unpack("a3/A A*", "007 Bond  J ")      (" Bond", "J")
		unpack("a3 x2 /A A*", "007: Bond, J.") ("Bond, J", ".")

		pack("n/a* w/a","hello,","world")     "\000\006hello,\005world"
		pack("a/W2", ord("a") .. ord("z"))    "2ab"

	       The length-item is not returned explicitly from "unpack".

	       Supplying a count to the length-item format letter is only
	       useful with "A", "a", or "Z".  Packing with a length-item of
	       "a" or "Z" may introduce "\000" characters, which Perl does not
	       regard as legal in numeric strings.

	   ·   The integer types "s", "S", "l", and "L" may be followed by a
	       "!" modifier to specify native shorts or longs.	As shown in
	       the example above, a bare "l" means exactly 32 bits, although
	       the native "long" as seen by the local C compiler may be
	       larger.	This is mainly an issue on 64-bit platforms.  You can
	       see whether using "!" makes any difference this way:

		   printf "format s is %d, s! is %d\n",
		       length pack("s"), length pack("s!");

		   printf "format l is %d, l! is %d\n",
		       length pack("l"), length pack("l!");

	       "i!" and "I!" are also allowed, but only for completeness'
	       sake: they are identical to "i" and "I".

	       The actual sizes (in bytes) of native shorts, ints, longs, and
	       long longs on the platform where Perl was built are also
	       available from the command line:

		   $ perl -V:{short,int,long{,long}}size
		   shortsize='2';
		   intsize='4';
		   longsize='4';
		   longlongsize='8';

	       or programmatically via the "Config" module:

		      use Config;
		      print $Config{shortsize},	   "\n";
		      print $Config{intsize},	   "\n";
		      print $Config{longsize},	   "\n";
		      print $Config{longlongsize}, "\n";

	       $Config{longlongsize} is undefined on systems without long long
	       support.

	   ·   The integer formats "s", "S", "i", "I", "l", "L", "j", and "J"
	       are inherently non-portable between processors and operating
	       systems because they obey native byteorder and endianness.  For
	       example, a 4-byte integer 0x12345678 (305419896 decimal) would
	       be ordered natively (arranged in and handled by the CPU
	       registers) into bytes as

		   0x12 0x34 0x56 0x78	# big-endian
		   0x78 0x56 0x34 0x12	# little-endian

	       Basically, Intel and VAX CPUs are little-endian, while
	       everybody else, including Motorola m68k/88k, PPC, Sparc, HP PA,
	       Power, and Cray, are big-endian.	 Alpha and MIPS can be either:
	       Digital/Compaq uses (well, used) them in little-endian mode,
	       but SGI/Cray uses them in big-endian mode.

	       The names big-endian and little-endian are comic references to
	       the egg-eating habits of the little-endian Lilliputians and the
	       big-endian Blefuscudians from the classic Jonathan Swift
	       satire, Gulliver's Travels.  This entered computer lingo via
	       the paper "On Holy Wars and a Plea for Peace" by Danny Cohen,
	       USC/ISI IEN 137, April 1, 1980.

	       Some systems may have even weirder byte orders such as

		  0x56 0x78 0x12 0x34
		  0x34 0x12 0x78 0x56

	       You can determine your system endianness with this incantation:

		  printf("%#02x ", $_) for unpack("W*", pack L=>0x12345678);

	       The byteorder on the platform where Perl was built is also
	       available via Config:

		   use Config;
		   print "$Config{byteorder}\n";

	       or from the command line:

		   $ perl -V:byteorder

	       Byteorders "1234" and "12345678" are little-endian; "4321" and
	       "87654321" are big-endian.

	       For portably packed integers, either use the formats "n", "N",
	       "v", and "V" or else use the ">" and "<" modifiers described
	       immediately below.  See also perlport.

	   ·   Starting with Perl 5.10.0, integer and floating-point formats,
	       along with the "p" and "P" formats and "()" groups, may all be
	       followed by the ">" or "<" endianness modifiers to respectively
	       enforce big- or little-endian byte-order.  These modifiers are
	       especially useful given how "n", "N", "v", and "V" don't cover
	       signed integers, 64-bit integers, or floating-point values.

	       Here are some concerns to keep in mind when using an endianness
	       modifier:

	       ·   Exchanging signed integers between different platforms
		   works only when all platforms store them in the same
		   format.  Most platforms store signed integers in two's-
		   complement notation, so usually this is not an issue.

	       ·   The ">" or "<" modifiers can only be used on floating-point
		   formats on big- or little-endian machines.  Otherwise,
		   attempting to use them raises an exception.

	       ·   Forcing big- or little-endian byte-order on floating-point
		   values for data exchange can work only if all platforms use
		   the same binary representation such as IEEE floating-point.
		   Even if all platforms are using IEEE, there may still be
		   subtle differences.	Being able to use ">" or "<" on
		   floating-point values can be useful, but also dangerous if
		   you don't know exactly what you're doing.  It is not a
		   general way to portably store floating-point values.

	       ·   When using ">" or "<" on a "()" group, this affects all
		   types inside the group that accept byte-order modifiers,
		   including all subgroups.  It is silently ignored for all
		   other types.	 You are not allowed to override the byte-
		   order within a group that already has a byte-order modifier
		   suffix.

	   ·   Real numbers (floats and doubles) are in native machine format
	       only.  Due to the multiplicity of floating-point formats and
	       the lack of a standard "network" representation for them, no
	       facility for interchange has been made.	This means that packed
	       floating-point data written on one machine may not be readable
	       on another, even if both use IEEE floating-point arithmetic
	       (because the endianness of the memory representation is not
	       part of the IEEE spec).	See also perlport.

	       If you know exactly what you're doing, you can use the ">" or
	       "<" modifiers to force big- or little-endian byte-order on
	       floating-point values.

	       Because Perl uses doubles (or long doubles, if configured)
	       internally for all numeric calculation, converting from double
	       into float and thence to double again loses precision, so
	       "unpack("f", pack("f", $foo)") will not in general equal $foo.

	   ·   Pack and unpack can operate in two modes: character mode ("C0"
	       mode) where the packed string is processed per character, and
	       UTF-8 mode ("U0" mode) where the packed string is processed in
	       its UTF-8-encoded Unicode form on a byte-by-byte basis.
	       Character mode is the default unless the format string starts
	       with "U".  You can always switch mode mid-format with an
	       explicit "C0" or "U0" in the format.  This mode remains in
	       effect until the next mode change, or until the end of the "()"
	       group it (directly) applies to.

	       Using "C0" to get Unicode characters while using "U0" to get
	       non-Unicode bytes is not necessarily obvious.   Probably only
	       the first of these is what you want:

		   $ perl -CS -E 'say "\x{3B1}\x{3C9}"' |
		     perl -CS -ne 'printf "%v04X\n", $_ for unpack("C0A*", $_)'
		   03B1.03C9
		   $ perl -CS -E 'say "\x{3B1}\x{3C9}"' |
		     perl -CS -ne 'printf "%v02X\n", $_ for unpack("U0A*", $_)'
		   CE.B1.CF.89
		   $ perl -CS -E 'say "\x{3B1}\x{3C9}"' |
		     perl -C0 -ne 'printf "%v02X\n", $_ for unpack("C0A*", $_)'
		   CE.B1.CF.89
		   $ perl -CS -E 'say "\x{3B1}\x{3C9}"' |
		     perl -C0 -ne 'printf "%v02X\n", $_ for unpack("U0A*", $_)'
		   C3.8E.C2.B1.C3.8F.C2.89

	       Those examples also illustrate that you should not try to use
	       "pack"/"unpack" as a substitute for the Encode module.

	   ·   You must yourself do any alignment or padding by inserting, for
	       example, enough "x"es while packing.  There is no way for
	       pack() and unpack() to know where characters are going to or
	       coming from, so they handle their output and input as flat
	       sequences of characters.

	   ·   A "()" group is a sub-TEMPLATE enclosed in parentheses.	A
	       group may take a repeat count either as postfix, or for
	       unpack(), also via the "/" template character.  Within each
	       repetition of a group, positioning with "@" starts over at 0.
	       Therefore, the result of

		   pack("@1A((@2A)@3A)", qw[X Y Z])

	       is the string "\0X\0\0YZ".

	   ·   "x" and "X" accept the "!" modifier to act as alignment
	       commands: they jump forward or back to the closest position
	       aligned at a multiple of "count" characters.  For example, to
	       pack() or unpack() a C structure like

		   struct {
		       char   c;    /* one signed, 8-bit character */
		       double d;
		       char   cc[2];
		   }

	       one may need to use the template "c x![d] d c[2]".  This
	       assumes that doubles must be aligned to the size of double.

	       For alignment commands, a "count" of 0 is equivalent to a
	       "count" of 1; both are no-ops.

	   ·   "n", "N", "v" and "V" accept the "!" modifier to represent
	       signed 16-/32-bit integers in big-/little-endian order.	This
	       is portable only when all platforms sharing packed data use the
	       same binary representation for signed integers; for example,
	       when all platforms use two's-complement representation.

	   ·   Comments can be embedded in a TEMPLATE using "#" through the
	       end of line.  White space can separate pack codes from each
	       other, but modifiers and repeat counts must follow immediately.
	       Breaking complex templates into individual line-by-line
	       components, suitably annotated, can do as much to improve
	       legibility and maintainability of pack/unpack formats as "/x"
	       can for complicated pattern matches.

	   ·   If TEMPLATE requires more arguments than pack() is given,
	       pack() assumes additional "" arguments.	If TEMPLATE requires
	       fewer arguments than given, extra arguments are ignored.

	   Examples:

	       $foo = pack("WWWW",65,66,67,68);
	       # foo eq "ABCD"
	       $foo = pack("W4",65,66,67,68);
	       # same thing
	       $foo = pack("W4",0x24b6,0x24b7,0x24b8,0x24b9);
	       # same thing with Unicode circled letters.
	       $foo = pack("U4",0x24b6,0x24b7,0x24b8,0x24b9);
	       # same thing with Unicode circled letters.  You don't get the
	       # UTF-8 bytes because the U at the start of the format caused
	       # a switch to U0-mode, so the UTF-8 bytes get joined into
	       # characters
	       $foo = pack("C0U4",0x24b6,0x24b7,0x24b8,0x24b9);
	       # foo eq "\xe2\x92\xb6\xe2\x92\xb7\xe2\x92\xb8\xe2\x92\xb9"
	       # This is the UTF-8 encoding of the string in the
	       # previous example

	       $foo = pack("ccxxcc",65,66,67,68);
	       # foo eq "AB\0\0CD"

	       # NOTE: The examples above featuring "W" and "c" are true
	       # only on ASCII and ASCII-derived systems such as ISO Latin 1
	       # and UTF-8.  On EBCDIC systems, the first example would be
	       #      $foo = pack("WWWW",193,194,195,196);

	       $foo = pack("s2",1,2);
	       # "\001\000\002\000" on little-endian
	       # "\000\001\000\002" on big-endian

	       $foo = pack("a4","abcd","x","y","z");
	       # "abcd"

	       $foo = pack("aaaa","abcd","x","y","z");
	       # "axyz"

	       $foo = pack("a14","abcdefg");
	       # "abcdefg\0\0\0\0\0\0\0"

	       $foo = pack("i9pl", gmtime);
	       # a real struct tm (on my system anyway)

	       $utmp_template = "Z8 Z8 Z16 L";
	       $utmp = pack($utmp_template, @utmp1);
	       # a struct utmp (BSDish)

	       @utmp2 = unpack($utmp_template, $utmp);
	       # "@utmp1" eq "@utmp2"

	       sub bintodec {
		   unpack("N", pack("B32", substr("0" x 32 . shift, -32)));
	       }

	       $foo = pack('sx2l', 12, 34);
	       # short 12, two zero bytes padding, long 34
	       $bar = pack('s@4l', 12, 34);
	       # short 12, zero fill to position 4, long 34
	       # $foo eq $bar
	       $baz = pack('s.l', 12, 4, 34);
	       # short 12, zero fill to position 4, long 34

	       $foo = pack('nN', 42, 4711);
	       # pack big-endian 16- and 32-bit unsigned integers
	       $foo = pack('S>L>', 42, 4711);
	       # exactly the same
	       $foo = pack('s<l<', -42, 4711);
	       # pack little-endian 16- and 32-bit signed integers
	       $foo = pack('(sl)<', -42, 4711);
	       # exactly the same

	   The same template may generally also be used in unpack().

       package NAMESPACE
       package NAMESPACE VERSION
       package NAMESPACE BLOCK
       package NAMESPACE VERSION BLOCK
	   Declares the BLOCK or the rest of the compilation unit as being in
	   the given namespace.	 The scope of the package declaration is
	   either the supplied code BLOCK or, in the absence of a BLOCK, from
	   the declaration itself through the end of current scope (the
	   enclosing block, file, or "eval").  That is, the forms without a
	   BLOCK are operative through the end of the current scope, just like
	   the "my", "state", and "our" operators.  All unqualified dynamic
	   identifiers in this scope will be in the given namespace, except
	   where overridden by another "package" declaration or when they're
	   one of the special identifiers that qualify into "main::", like
	   "STDOUT", "ARGV", "ENV", and the punctuation variables.

	   A package statement affects dynamic variables only, including those
	   you've used "local" on, but not lexically-scoped variables, which
	   are created with "my", "state", or "our".  Typically it would be
	   the first declaration in a file included by "require" or "use".
	   You can switch into a package in more than one place, since this
	   only determines which default symbol table the compiler uses for
	   the rest of that block.  You can refer to identifiers in other
	   packages than the current one by prefixing the identifier with the
	   package name and a double colon, as in $SomePack::var or
	   "ThatPack::INPUT_HANDLE".  If package name is omitted, the "main"
	   package as assumed.	That is, $::sail is equivalent to $main::sail
	   (as well as to "$main'sail", still seen in ancient code, mostly
	   from Perl 4).

	   If VERSION is provided, "package" sets the $VERSION variable in the
	   given namespace to a version object with the VERSION provided.
	   VERSION must be a "strict" style version number as defined by the
	   version module: a positive decimal number (integer or decimal-
	   fraction) without exponentiation or else a dotted-decimal v-string
	   with a leading 'v' character and at least three components.	You
	   should set $VERSION only once per package.

	   See "Packages" in perlmod for more information about packages,
	   modules, and classes.  See perlsub for other scoping issues.

       __PACKAGE__
	   A special token that returns the name of the package in which it
	   occurs.

       pipe READHANDLE,WRITEHANDLE
	   Opens a pair of connected pipes like the corresponding system call.
	   Note that if you set up a loop of piped processes, deadlock can
	   occur unless you are very careful.  In addition, note that Perl's
	   pipes use IO buffering, so you may need to set $| to flush your
	   WRITEHANDLE after each command, depending on the application.

	   Returns true on success.

	   See IPC::Open2, IPC::Open3, and "Bidirectional Communication with
	   Another Process" in perlipc for examples of such things.

	   On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, that flag is
	   set on all newly opened file descriptors whose "fileno"s are higher
	   than the current value of $^F (by default 2 for "STDERR").  See
	   "$^F" in perlvar.

       pop ARRAY
       pop EXPR
       pop Pops and returns the last value of the array, shortening the array
	   by one element.

	   Returns the undefined value if the array is empty, although this
	   may also happen at other times.  If ARRAY is omitted, pops the
	   @ARGV array in the main program, but the @_ array in subroutines,
	   just like "shift".

	   Starting with Perl 5.14, "pop" can take a scalar EXPR, which must
	   hold a reference to an unblessed array.  The argument will be
	   dereferenced automatically.	This aspect of "pop" is considered
	   highly experimental.	 The exact behaviour may change in a future
	   version of Perl.

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code who are running
	   earlier versions of Perl with mysterious syntax errors, put this
	   sort of thing at the top of your file to signal that your code will
	   work only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.014;  # so push/pop/etc work on scalars (experimental)

       pos SCALAR
       pos Returns the offset of where the last "m//g" search left off for the
	   variable in question ($_ is used when the variable is not
	   specified).	Note that 0 is a valid match offset.  "undef"
	   indicates that the search position is reset (usually due to match
	   failure, but can also be because no match has yet been run on the
	   scalar).

	   "pos" directly accesses the location used by the regexp engine to
	   store the offset, so assigning to "pos" will change that offset,
	   and so will also influence the "\G" zero-width assertion in regular
	   expressions.	 Both of these effects take place for the next match,
	   so you can't affect the position with "pos" during the current
	   match, such as in "(?{pos() = 5})" or "s//pos() = 5/e".

	   Setting "pos" also resets the matched with zero-length flag,
	   described under "Repeated Patterns Matching a Zero-length
	   Substring" in perlre.

	   Because a failed "m//gc" match doesn't reset the offset, the return
	   from "pos" won't change either in this case.	 See perlre and
	   perlop.

       print FILEHANDLE LIST
       print FILEHANDLE
       print LIST
       print
	   Prints a string or a list of strings.  Returns true if successful.
	   FILEHANDLE may be a scalar variable containing the name of or a
	   reference to the filehandle, thus introducing one level of
	   indirection.	 (NOTE: If FILEHANDLE is a variable and the next token
	   is a term, it may be misinterpreted as an operator unless you
	   interpose a "+" or put parentheses around the arguments.)  If
	   FILEHANDLE is omitted, prints to the last selected (see "select")
	   output handle.  If LIST is omitted, prints $_ to the currently
	   selected output handle.  To use FILEHANDLE alone to print the
	   content of $_ to it, you must use a real filehandle like "FH", not
	   an indirect one like $fh.  To set the default output handle to
	   something other than STDOUT, use the select operation.

	   The current value of $, (if any) is printed between each LIST item.
	   The current value of "$\" (if any) is printed after the entire LIST
	   has been printed.  Because print takes a LIST, anything in the LIST
	   is evaluated in list context, including any subroutines whose
	   return lists you pass to "print".  Be careful not to follow the
	   print keyword with a left parenthesis unless you want the
	   corresponding right parenthesis to terminate the arguments to the
	   print; put parentheses around all arguments (or interpose a "+",
	   but that doesn't look as good).

	   If you're storing handles in an array or hash, or in general
	   whenever you're using any expression more complex than a bareword
	   handle or a plain, unsubscripted scalar variable to retrieve it,
	   you will have to use a block returning the filehandle value
	   instead, in which case the LIST may not be omitted:

	       print { $files[$i] } "stuff\n";
	       print { $OK ? STDOUT : STDERR } "stuff\n";

	   Printing to a closed pipe or socket will generate a SIGPIPE signal.
	   See perlipc for more on signal handling.

       printf FILEHANDLE FORMAT, LIST
       printf FILEHANDLE
       printf FORMAT, LIST
       printf
	   Equivalent to "print FILEHANDLE sprintf(FORMAT, LIST)", except that
	   "$\" (the output record separator) is not appended.	The FORMAT and
	   the LIST are actually parsed as a single list.  The first argument
	   of the list will be interpreted as the "printf" format.  This means
	   that "printf(@_)" will use $_[0] as the format.  See sprintf for an
	   explanation of the format argument.	If "use locale" (including
	   "use locale ':not_characters'") is in effect and POSIX::setlocale()
	   has been called, the character used for the decimal separator in
	   formatted floating-point numbers is affected by the LC_NUMERIC
	   locale setting.  See perllocale and POSIX.

	   For historical reasons, if you omit the list, $_ is used as the
	   format; to use FILEHANDLE without a list, you must use a real
	   filehandle like "FH", not an indirect one like $fh.	However, this
	   will rarely do what you want; if $_ contains formatting codes, they
	   will be replaced with the empty string and a warning will be
	   emitted if warnings are enabled.  Just use "print" if you want to
	   print the contents of $_.

	   Don't fall into the trap of using a "printf" when a simple "print"
	   would do.  The "print" is more efficient and less error prone.

       prototype FUNCTION
	   Returns the prototype of a function as a string (or "undef" if the
	   function has no prototype).	FUNCTION is a reference to, or the
	   name of, the function whose prototype you want to retrieve.

	   If FUNCTION is a string starting with "CORE::", the rest is taken
	   as a name for a Perl builtin.  If the builtin's arguments cannot be
	   adequately expressed by a prototype (such as "system"), prototype()
	   returns "undef", because the builtin does not really behave like a
	   Perl function.  Otherwise, the string describing the equivalent
	   prototype is returned.

       push ARRAY,LIST
       push EXPR,LIST
	   Treats ARRAY as a stack by appending the values of LIST to the end
	   of ARRAY.  The length of ARRAY increases by the length of LIST.
	   Has the same effect as

	       for $value (LIST) {
		   $ARRAY[++$#ARRAY] = $value;
	       }

	   but is more efficient.  Returns the number of elements in the array
	   following the completed "push".

	   Starting with Perl 5.14, "push" can take a scalar EXPR, which must
	   hold a reference to an unblessed array.  The argument will be
	   dereferenced automatically.	This aspect of "push" is considered
	   highly experimental.	 The exact behaviour may change in a future
	   version of Perl.

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code who are running
	   earlier versions of Perl with mysterious syntax errors, put this
	   sort of thing at the top of your file to signal that your code will
	   work only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.014;  # so push/pop/etc work on scalars (experimental)

       q/STRING/
       qq/STRING/
       qw/STRING/
       qx/STRING/
	   Generalized quotes.	See "Quote-Like Operators" in perlop.

       qr/STRING/
	   Regexp-like quote.  See "Regexp Quote-Like Operators" in perlop.

       quotemeta EXPR
       quotemeta
	   Returns the value of EXPR with all the ASCII non-"word" characters
	   backslashed.	 (That is, all ASCII characters not matching
	   "/[A-Za-z_0-9]/" will be preceded by a backslash in the returned
	   string, regardless of any locale settings.)	This is the internal
	   function implementing the "\Q" escape in double-quoted strings.
	   (See below for the behavior on non-ASCII code points.)

	   If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.

	   quotemeta (and "\Q" ... "\E") are useful when interpolating strings
	   into regular expressions, because by default an interpolated
	   variable will be considered a mini-regular expression.  For
	   example:

	       my $sentence = 'The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog';
	       my $substring = 'quick.*?fox';
	       $sentence =~ s{$substring}{big bad wolf};

	   Will cause $sentence to become 'The big bad wolf jumped over...'.

	   On the other hand:

	       my $sentence = 'The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog';
	       my $substring = 'quick.*?fox';
	       $sentence =~ s{\Q$substring\E}{big bad wolf};

	   Or:

	       my $sentence = 'The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog';
	       my $substring = 'quick.*?fox';
	       my $quoted_substring = quotemeta($substring);
	       $sentence =~ s{$quoted_substring}{big bad wolf};

	   Will both leave the sentence as is.	Normally, when accepting
	   literal string input from the user, quotemeta() or "\Q" must be
	   used.

	   In Perl v5.14, all non-ASCII characters are quoted in
	   non-UTF-8-encoded strings, but not quoted in UTF-8 strings.

	   Starting in Perl v5.16, Perl adopted a Unicode-defined strategy for
	   quoting non-ASCII characters; the quoting of ASCII characters is
	   unchanged.

	   Also unchanged is the quoting of non-UTF-8 strings when outside the
	   scope of a "use feature 'unicode_strings'", which is to quote all
	   characters in the upper Latin1 range.  This provides complete
	   backwards compatibility for old programs which do not use Unicode.
	   (Note that "unicode_strings" is automatically enabled within the
	   scope of a "use v5.12" or greater.)

	   Within the scope of "use locale", all non-ASCII Latin1 code points
	   are quoted whether the string is encoded as UTF-8 or not.  As
	   mentioned above, locale does not affect the quoting of ASCII-range
	   characters.	This protects against those locales where characters
	   such as "|" are considered to be word characters.

	   Otherwise, Perl quotes non-ASCII characters using an adaptation
	   from Unicode (see <http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/>).  The
	   only code points that are quoted are those that have any of the
	   Unicode properties:	Pattern_Syntax, Pattern_White_Space,
	   White_Space, Default_Ignorable_Code_Point, or
	   General_Category=Control.

	   Of these properties, the two important ones are Pattern_Syntax and
	   Pattern_White_Space.	 They have been set up by Unicode for exactly
	   this purpose of deciding which characters in a regular expression
	   pattern should be quoted.  No character that can be in an
	   identifier has these properties.

	   Perl promises, that if we ever add regular expression pattern
	   metacharacters to the dozen already defined ("\ | ( ) [ { ^ $ * + ?
	   ."), that we will only use ones that have the Pattern_Syntax
	   property.  Perl also promises, that if we ever add characters that
	   are considered to be white space in regular expressions (currently
	   mostly affected by "/x"), they will all have the
	   Pattern_White_Space property.

	   Unicode promises that the set of code points that have these two
	   properties will never change, so something that is not quoted in
	   v5.16 will never need to be quoted in any future Perl release.
	   (Not all the code points that match Pattern_Syntax have actually
	   had characters assigned to them; so there is room to grow, but they
	   are quoted whether assigned or not.	Perl, of course, would never
	   use an unassigned code point as an actual metacharacter.)

	   Quoting characters that have the other 3 properties is done to
	   enhance the readability of the regular expression and not because
	   they actually need to be quoted for regular expression purposes
	   (characters with the White_Space property are likely to be
	   indistinguishable on the page or screen from those with the
	   Pattern_White_Space property; and the other two properties contain
	   non-printing characters).

       rand EXPR
       rand
	   Returns a random fractional number greater than or equal to 0 and
	   less than the value of EXPR.	 (EXPR should be positive.)  If EXPR
	   is omitted, the value 1 is used.  Currently EXPR with the value 0
	   is also special-cased as 1 (this was undocumented before Perl 5.8.0
	   and is subject to change in future versions of Perl).
	   Automatically calls "srand" unless "srand" has already been called.
	   See also "srand".

	   Apply "int()" to the value returned by "rand()" if you want random
	   integers instead of random fractional numbers.  For example,

	       int(rand(10))

	   returns a random integer between 0 and 9, inclusive.

	   (Note: If your rand function consistently returns numbers that are
	   too large or too small, then your version of Perl was probably
	   compiled with the wrong number of RANDBITS.)

	   "rand()" is not cryptographically secure.  You should not rely on
	   it in security-sensitive situations.	 As of this writing, a number
	   of third-party CPAN modules offer random number generators intended
	   by their authors to be cryptographically secure, including:
	   Data::Entropy, Crypt::Random, Math::Random::Secure, and
	   Math::TrulyRandom.

       read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
       read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
	   Attempts to read LENGTH characters of data into variable SCALAR
	   from the specified FILEHANDLE.  Returns the number of characters
	   actually read, 0 at end of file, or undef if there was an error (in
	   the latter case $! is also set).  SCALAR will be grown or shrunk so
	   that the last character actually read is the last character of the
	   scalar after the read.

	   An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data at some place in
	   the string other than the beginning.	 A negative OFFSET specifies
	   placement at that many characters counting backwards from the end
	   of the string.  A positive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR
	   results in the string being padded to the required size with "\0"
	   bytes before the result of the read is appended.

	   The call is implemented in terms of either Perl's or your system's
	   native fread(3) library function.  To get a true read(2) system
	   call, see sysread.

	   Note the characters: depending on the status of the filehandle,
	   either (8-bit) bytes or characters are read.	 By default, all
	   filehandles operate on bytes, but for example if the filehandle has
	   been opened with the ":utf8" I/O layer (see "open", and the "open"
	   pragma, open), the I/O will operate on UTF8-encoded Unicode
	   characters, not bytes.  Similarly for the ":encoding" pragma: in
	   that case pretty much any characters can be read.

       readdir DIRHANDLE
	   Returns the next directory entry for a directory opened by
	   "opendir".  If used in list context, returns all the rest of the
	   entries in the directory.  If there are no more entries, returns
	   the undefined value in scalar context and the empty list in list
	   context.

	   If you're planning to filetest the return values out of a
	   "readdir", you'd better prepend the directory in question.
	   Otherwise, because we didn't "chdir" there, it would have been
	   testing the wrong file.

	       opendir(my $dh, $some_dir) || die "can't opendir $some_dir: $!";
	       @dots = grep { /^\./ && -f "$some_dir/$_" } readdir($dh);
	       closedir $dh;

	   As of Perl 5.12 you can use a bare "readdir" in a "while" loop,
	   which will set $_ on every iteration.

	       opendir(my $dh, $some_dir) || die;
	       while(readdir $dh) {
		   print "$some_dir/$_\n";
	       }
	       closedir $dh;

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code who are running
	   earlier versions of Perl with mysterious failures, put this sort of
	   thing at the top of your file to signal that your code will work
	   only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.012; # so readdir assigns to $_ in a lone while test

       readline EXPR
       readline
	   Reads from the filehandle whose typeglob is contained in EXPR (or
	   from *ARGV if EXPR is not provided).	 In scalar context, each call
	   reads and returns the next line until end-of-file is reached,
	   whereupon the subsequent call returns "undef".  In list context,
	   reads until end-of-file is reached and returns a list of lines.
	   Note that the notion of "line" used here is whatever you may have
	   defined with $/ or $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR).	 See "$/" in perlvar.

	   When $/ is set to "undef", when "readline" is in scalar context
	   (i.e., file slurp mode), and when an empty file is read, it returns
	   '' the first time, followed by "undef" subsequently.

	   This is the internal function implementing the "<EXPR>" operator,
	   but you can use it directly.	 The "<EXPR>" operator is discussed in
	   more detail in "I/O Operators" in perlop.

	       $line = <STDIN>;
	       $line = readline(*STDIN);    # same thing

	   If "readline" encounters an operating system error, $! will be set
	   with the corresponding error message.  It can be helpful to check
	   $! when you are reading from filehandles you don't trust, such as a
	   tty or a socket.  The following example uses the operator form of
	   "readline" and dies if the result is not defined.

	       while ( ! eof($fh) ) {
		   defined( $_ = <$fh> ) or die "readline failed: $!";
		   ...
	       }

	   Note that you have can't handle "readline" errors that way with the
	   "ARGV" filehandle.  In that case, you have to open each element of
	   @ARGV yourself since "eof" handles "ARGV" differently.

	       foreach my $arg (@ARGV) {
		   open(my $fh, $arg) or warn "Can't open $arg: $!";

		   while ( ! eof($fh) ) {
		       defined( $_ = <$fh> )
			   or die "readline failed for $arg: $!";
		       ...
		   }
	       }

       readlink EXPR
       readlink
	   Returns the value of a symbolic link, if symbolic links are
	   implemented.	 If not, raises an exception.  If there is a system
	   error, returns the undefined value and sets $! (errno).  If EXPR is
	   omitted, uses $_.

	   Portability issues: "readlink" in perlport.

       readpipe EXPR
       readpipe
	   EXPR is executed as a system command.  The collected standard
	   output of the command is returned.  In scalar context, it comes
	   back as a single (potentially multi-line) string.  In list context,
	   returns a list of lines (however you've defined lines with $/ or
	   $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR).  This is the internal function
	   implementing the "qx/EXPR/" operator, but you can use it directly.
	   The "qx/EXPR/" operator is discussed in more detail in "I/O
	   Operators" in perlop.  If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.

       recv SOCKET,SCALAR,LENGTH,FLAGS
	   Receives a message on a socket.  Attempts to receive LENGTH
	   characters of data into variable SCALAR from the specified SOCKET
	   filehandle.	SCALAR will be grown or shrunk to the length actually
	   read.  Takes the same flags as the system call of the same name.
	   Returns the address of the sender if SOCKET's protocol supports
	   this; returns an empty string otherwise.  If there's an error,
	   returns the undefined value.	 This call is actually implemented in
	   terms of recvfrom(2) system call.  See "UDP: Message Passing" in
	   perlipc for examples.

	   Note the characters: depending on the status of the socket, either
	   (8-bit) bytes or characters are received.  By default all sockets
	   operate on bytes, but for example if the socket has been changed
	   using binmode() to operate with the ":encoding(utf8)" I/O layer
	   (see the "open" pragma, open), the I/O will operate on UTF8-encoded
	   Unicode characters, not bytes.  Similarly for the ":encoding"
	   pragma: in that case pretty much any characters can be read.

       redo LABEL
       redo EXPR
       redo
	   The "redo" command restarts the loop block without evaluating the
	   conditional again.  The "continue" block, if any, is not executed.
	   If the LABEL is omitted, the command refers to the innermost
	   enclosing loop.  The "redo EXPR" form, available starting in Perl
	   5.18.0, allows a label name to be computed at run time, and is
	   otherwise identical to "redo LABEL".	 Programs that want to lie to
	   themselves about what was just input normally use this command:

	       # a simpleminded Pascal comment stripper
	       # (warning: assumes no { or } in strings)
	       LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
		   while (s|({.*}.*){.*}|$1 |) {}
		   s|{.*}| |;
		   if (s|{.*| |) {
		       $front = $_;
		       while (<STDIN>) {
			   if (/}/) {  # end of comment?
			       s|^|$front\{|;
			       redo LINE;
			   }
		       }
		   }
		   print;
	       }

	   "redo" cannot be used to retry a block that returns a value such as
	   "eval {}", "sub {}", or "do {}", and should not be used to exit a
	   grep() or map() operation.

	   Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop
	   that executes once.	Thus "redo" inside such a block will
	   effectively turn it into a looping construct.

	   See also "continue" for an illustration of how "last", "next", and
	   "redo" work.

	   Unlike most named operators, this has the same precedence as
	   assignment.	It is also exempt from the looks-like-a-function rule,
	   so "redo ("foo")."bar"" will cause "bar" to be part of the argument
	   to "redo".

       ref EXPR
       ref Returns a non-empty string if EXPR is a reference, the empty string
	   otherwise.  If EXPR is not specified, $_ will be used.  The value
	   returned depends on the type of thing the reference is a reference
	   to.	Builtin types include:

	       SCALAR
	       ARRAY
	       HASH
	       CODE
	       REF
	       GLOB
	       LVALUE
	       FORMAT
	       IO
	       VSTRING
	       Regexp

	   If the referenced object has been blessed into a package, then that
	   package name is returned instead.  You can think of "ref" as a
	   "typeof" operator.

	       if (ref($r) eq "HASH") {
		   print "r is a reference to a hash.\n";
	       }
	       unless (ref($r)) {
		   print "r is not a reference at all.\n";
	       }

	   The return value "LVALUE" indicates a reference to an lvalue that
	   is not a variable.  You get this from taking the reference of
	   function calls like "pos()" or "substr()".  "VSTRING" is returned
	   if the reference points to a version string.

	   The result "Regexp" indicates that the argument is a regular
	   expression resulting from "qr//".

	   See also perlref.

       rename OLDNAME,NEWNAME
	   Changes the name of a file; an existing file NEWNAME will be
	   clobbered.  Returns true for success, false otherwise.

	   Behavior of this function varies wildly depending on your system
	   implementation.  For example, it will usually not work across file
	   system boundaries, even though the system mv command sometimes
	   compensates for this.  Other restrictions include whether it works
	   on directories, open files, or pre-existing files.  Check perlport
	   and either the rename(2) manpage or equivalent system documentation
	   for details.

	   For a platform independent "move" function look at the File::Copy
	   module.

	   Portability issues: "rename" in perlport.

       require VERSION
       require EXPR
       require
	   Demands a version of Perl specified by VERSION, or demands some
	   semantics specified by EXPR or by $_ if EXPR is not supplied.

	   VERSION may be either a numeric argument such as 5.006, which will
	   be compared to $], or a literal of the form v5.6.1, which will be
	   compared to $^V (aka $PERL_VERSION).	 An exception is raised if
	   VERSION is greater than the version of the current Perl
	   interpreter.	 Compare with "use", which can do a similar check at
	   compile time.

	   Specifying VERSION as a literal of the form v5.6.1 should generally
	   be avoided, because it leads to misleading error messages under
	   earlier versions of Perl that do not support this syntax.  The
	   equivalent numeric version should be used instead.

	       require v5.6.1;	   # run time version check
	       require 5.6.1;	   # ditto
	       require 5.006_001;  # ditto; preferred for backwards
				     compatibility

	   Otherwise, "require" demands that a library file be included if it
	   hasn't already been included.  The file is included via the do-FILE
	   mechanism, which is essentially just a variety of "eval" with the
	   caveat that lexical variables in the invoking script will be
	   invisible to the included code.  Has semantics similar to the
	   following subroutine:

	       sub require {
		  my ($filename) = @_;
		  if (exists $INC{$filename}) {
		      return 1 if $INC{$filename};
		      die "Compilation failed in require";
		  }
		  my ($realfilename,$result);
		  ITER: {
		      foreach $prefix (@INC) {
			  $realfilename = "$prefix/$filename";
			  if (-f $realfilename) {
			      $INC{$filename} = $realfilename;
			      $result = do $realfilename;
			      last ITER;
			  }
		      }
		      die "Can't find $filename in \@INC";
		  }
		  if ($@) {
		      $INC{$filename} = undef;
		      die $@;
		  } elsif (!$result) {
		      delete $INC{$filename};
		      die "$filename did not return true value";
		  } else {
		      return $result;
		  }
	       }

	   Note that the file will not be included twice under the same
	   specified name.

	   The file must return true as the last statement to indicate
	   successful execution of any initialization code, so it's customary
	   to end such a file with "1;" unless you're sure it'll return true
	   otherwise.  But it's better just to put the "1;", in case you add
	   more statements.

	   If EXPR is a bareword, the require assumes a ".pm" extension and
	   replaces "::" with "/" in the filename for you, to make it easy to
	   load standard modules.  This form of loading of modules does not
	   risk altering your namespace.

	   In other words, if you try this:

		   require Foo::Bar;	 # a splendid bareword

	   The require function will actually look for the "Foo/Bar.pm" file
	   in the directories specified in the @INC array.

	   But if you try this:

		   $class = 'Foo::Bar';
		   require $class;	 # $class is not a bareword
	       #or
		   require "Foo::Bar";	 # not a bareword because of the ""

	   The require function will look for the "Foo::Bar" file in the @INC
	   array and will complain about not finding "Foo::Bar" there.	In
	   this case you can do:

		   eval "require $class";

	   Now that you understand how "require" looks for files with a
	   bareword argument, there is a little extra functionality going on
	   behind the scenes.  Before "require" looks for a ".pm" extension,
	   it will first look for a similar filename with a ".pmc" extension.
	   If this file is found, it will be loaded in place of any file
	   ending in a ".pm" extension.

	   You can also insert hooks into the import facility by putting Perl
	   code directly into the @INC array.  There are three forms of hooks:
	   subroutine references, array references, and blessed objects.

	   Subroutine references are the simplest case.	 When the inclusion
	   system walks through @INC and encounters a subroutine, this
	   subroutine gets called with two parameters, the first a reference
	   to itself, and the second the name of the file to be included
	   (e.g., "Foo/Bar.pm").  The subroutine should return either nothing
	   or else a list of up to three values in the following order:

	   1.  A filehandle, from which the file will be read.

	   2.  A reference to a subroutine.  If there is no filehandle
	       (previous item), then this subroutine is expected to generate
	       one line of source code per call, writing the line into $_ and
	       returning 1, then finally at end of file returning 0.  If there
	       is a filehandle, then the subroutine will be called to act as a
	       simple source filter, with the line as read in $_.  Again,
	       return 1 for each valid line, and 0 after all lines have been
	       returned.

	   3.  Optional state for the subroutine.  The state is passed in as
	       $_[1].  A reference to the subroutine itself is passed in as
	       $_[0].

	   If an empty list, "undef", or nothing that matches the first 3
	   values above is returned, then "require" looks at the remaining
	   elements of @INC.  Note that this filehandle must be a real
	   filehandle (strictly a typeglob or reference to a typeglob, whether
	   blessed or unblessed); tied filehandles will be ignored and
	   processing will stop there.

	   If the hook is an array reference, its first element must be a
	   subroutine reference.  This subroutine is called as above, but the
	   first parameter is the array reference.  This lets you indirectly
	   pass arguments to the subroutine.

	   In other words, you can write:

	       push @INC, \&my_sub;
	       sub my_sub {
		   my ($coderef, $filename) = @_;  # $coderef is \&my_sub
		   ...
	       }

	   or:

	       push @INC, [ \&my_sub, $x, $y, ... ];
	       sub my_sub {
		   my ($arrayref, $filename) = @_;
		   # Retrieve $x, $y, ...
		   my @parameters = @$arrayref[1..$#$arrayref];
		   ...
	       }

	   If the hook is an object, it must provide an INC method that will
	   be called as above, the first parameter being the object itself.
	   (Note that you must fully qualify the sub's name, as unqualified
	   "INC" is always forced into package "main".)	 Here is a typical
	   code layout:

	       # In Foo.pm
	       package Foo;
	       sub new { ... }
	       sub Foo::INC {
		   my ($self, $filename) = @_;
		   ...
	       }

	       # In the main program
	       push @INC, Foo->new(...);

	   These hooks are also permitted to set the %INC entry corresponding
	   to the files they have loaded.  See "%INC" in perlvar.

	   For a yet-more-powerful import facility, see "use" and perlmod.

       reset EXPR
       reset
	   Generally used in a "continue" block at the end of a loop to clear
	   variables and reset "??" searches so that they work again.  The
	   expression is interpreted as a list of single characters (hyphens
	   allowed for ranges).	 All variables and arrays beginning with one
	   of those letters are reset to their pristine state.	If the
	   expression is omitted, one-match searches ("?pattern?") are reset
	   to match again.  Only resets variables or searches in the current
	   package.  Always returns 1.	Examples:

	       reset 'X';      # reset all X variables
	       reset 'a-z';    # reset lower case variables
	       reset;	       # just reset ?one-time? searches

	   Resetting "A-Z" is not recommended because you'll wipe out your
	   @ARGV and @INC arrays and your %ENV hash.  Resets only package
	   variables; lexical variables are unaffected, but they clean
	   themselves up on scope exit anyway, so you'll probably want to use
	   them instead.  See "my".

       return EXPR
       return
	   Returns from a subroutine, "eval", or "do FILE" with the value
	   given in EXPR.  Evaluation of EXPR may be in list, scalar, or void
	   context, depending on how the return value will be used, and the
	   context may vary from one execution to the next (see "wantarray").
	   If no EXPR is given, returns an empty list in list context, the
	   undefined value in scalar context, and (of course) nothing at all
	   in void context.

	   (In the absence of an explicit "return", a subroutine, eval, or do
	   FILE automatically returns the value of the last expression
	   evaluated.)

	   Unlike most named operators, this is also exempt from the looks-
	   like-a-function rule, so "return ("foo")."bar"" will cause "bar" to
	   be part of the argument to "return".

       reverse LIST
	   In list context, returns a list value consisting of the elements of
	   LIST in the opposite order.	In scalar context, concatenates the
	   elements of LIST and returns a string value with all characters in
	   the opposite order.

	       print join(", ", reverse "world", "Hello"); # Hello, world

	       print scalar reverse "dlrow ,", "olleH";	   # Hello, world

	   Used without arguments in scalar context, reverse() reverses $_.

	       $_ = "dlrow ,olleH";
	       print reverse;			      # No output, list context
	       print scalar reverse;		      # Hello, world

	   Note that reversing an array to itself (as in "@a = reverse @a")
	   will preserve non-existent elements whenever possible; i.e., for
	   non-magical arrays or for tied arrays with "EXISTS" and "DELETE"
	   methods.

	   This operator is also handy for inverting a hash, although there
	   are some caveats.  If a value is duplicated in the original hash,
	   only one of those can be represented as a key in the inverted hash.
	   Also, this has to unwind one hash and build a whole new one, which
	   may take some time on a large hash, such as from a DBM file.

	       %by_name = reverse %by_address;	# Invert the hash

       rewinddir DIRHANDLE
	   Sets the current position to the beginning of the directory for the
	   "readdir" routine on DIRHANDLE.

	   Portability issues: "rewinddir" in perlport.

       rindex STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
       rindex STR,SUBSTR
	   Works just like index() except that it returns the position of the
	   last occurrence of SUBSTR in STR.  If POSITION is specified,
	   returns the last occurrence beginning at or before that position.

       rmdir FILENAME
       rmdir
	   Deletes the directory specified by FILENAME if that directory is
	   empty.  If it succeeds it returns true; otherwise it returns false
	   and sets $! (errno).	 If FILENAME is omitted, uses $_.

	   To remove a directory tree recursively ("rm -rf" on Unix) look at
	   the "rmtree" function of the File::Path module.

       s///
	   The substitution operator.  See "Regexp Quote-Like Operators" in
	   perlop.

       say FILEHANDLE LIST
       say FILEHANDLE
       say LIST
       say Just like "print", but implicitly appends a newline.	 "say LIST" is
	   simply an abbreviation for "{ local $\ = "\n"; print LIST }".  To
	   use FILEHANDLE without a LIST to print the contents of $_ to it,
	   you must use a real filehandle like "FH", not an indirect one like
	   $fh.

	   This keyword is available only when the "say" feature is enabled,
	   or when prefixed with "CORE::"; see feature.	 Alternately, include
	   a "use v5.10" or later to the current scope.

       scalar EXPR
	   Forces EXPR to be interpreted in scalar context and returns the
	   value of EXPR.

	       @counts = ( scalar @a, scalar @b, scalar @c );

	   There is no equivalent operator to force an expression to be
	   interpolated in list context because in practice, this is never
	   needed.  If you really wanted to do so, however, you could use the
	   construction "@{[ (some expression) ]}", but usually a simple
	   "(some expression)" suffices.

	   Because "scalar" is a unary operator, if you accidentally use a
	   parenthesized list for the EXPR, this behaves as a scalar comma
	   expression, evaluating all but the last element in void context and
	   returning the final element evaluated in scalar context.  This is
	   seldom what you want.

	   The following single statement:

	       print uc(scalar(&foo,$bar)),$baz;

	   is the moral equivalent of these two:

	       &foo;
	       print(uc($bar),$baz);

	   See perlop for more details on unary operators and the comma
	   operator.

       seek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
	   Sets FILEHANDLE's position, just like the "fseek" call of "stdio".
	   FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
	   filehandle.	The values for WHENCE are 0 to set the new position in
	   bytes to POSITION; 1 to set it to the current position plus
	   POSITION; and 2 to set it to EOF plus POSITION, typically negative.
	   For WHENCE you may use the constants "SEEK_SET", "SEEK_CUR", and
	   "SEEK_END" (start of the file, current position, end of the file)
	   from the Fcntl module.  Returns 1 on success, false otherwise.

	   Note the in bytes: even if the filehandle has been set to operate
	   on characters (for example by using the ":encoding(utf8)" open
	   layer), tell() will return byte offsets, not character offsets
	   (because implementing that would render seek() and tell() rather
	   slow).

	   If you want to position the file for "sysread" or "syswrite", don't
	   use "seek", because buffering makes its effect on the file's read-
	   write position unpredictable and non-portable.  Use "sysseek"
	   instead.

	   Due to the rules and rigors of ANSI C, on some systems you have to
	   do a seek whenever you switch between reading and writing.  Amongst
	   other things, this may have the effect of calling stdio's
	   clearerr(3).	 A WHENCE of 1 ("SEEK_CUR") is useful for not moving
	   the file position:

	       seek(TEST,0,1);

	   This is also useful for applications emulating "tail -f".  Once you
	   hit EOF on your read and then sleep for a while, you (probably)
	   have to stick in a dummy seek() to reset things.  The "seek"
	   doesn't change the position, but it does clear the end-of-file
	   condition on the handle, so that the next "<FILE>" makes Perl try
	   again to read something.  (We hope.)

	   If that doesn't work (some I/O implementations are particularly
	   cantankerous), you might need something like this:

	       for (;;) {
		   for ($curpos = tell(FILE); $_ = <FILE>;
			$curpos = tell(FILE)) {
		       # search for some stuff and put it into files
		   }
		   sleep($for_a_while);
		   seek(FILE, $curpos, 0);
	       }

       seekdir DIRHANDLE,POS
	   Sets the current position for the "readdir" routine on DIRHANDLE.
	   POS must be a value returned by "telldir".  "seekdir" also has the
	   same caveats about possible directory compaction as the
	   corresponding system library routine.

       select FILEHANDLE
       select
	   Returns the currently selected filehandle.  If FILEHANDLE is
	   supplied, sets the new current default filehandle for output.  This
	   has two effects: first, a "write" or a "print" without a filehandle
	   default to this FILEHANDLE.	Second, references to variables
	   related to output will refer to this output channel.

	   For example, to set the top-of-form format for more than one output
	   channel, you might do the following:

	       select(REPORT1);
	       $^ = 'report1_top';
	       select(REPORT2);
	       $^ = 'report2_top';

	   FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
	   actual filehandle.  Thus:

	       $oldfh = select(STDERR); $| = 1; select($oldfh);

	   Some programmers may prefer to think of filehandles as objects with
	   methods, preferring to write the last example as:

	       use IO::Handle;
	       STDERR->autoflush(1);

	   Portability issues: "select" in perlport.

       select RBITS,WBITS,EBITS,TIMEOUT
	   This calls the select(2) syscall with the bit masks specified,
	   which can be constructed using "fileno" and "vec", along these
	   lines:

	       $rin = $win = $ein = '';
	       vec($rin, fileno(STDIN),	 1) = 1;
	       vec($win, fileno(STDOUT), 1) = 1;
	       $ein = $rin | $win;

	   If you want to select on many filehandles, you may wish to write a
	   subroutine like this:

	       sub fhbits {
		   my @fhlist = @_;
		   my $bits = "";
		   for my $fh (@fhlist) {
		       vec($bits, fileno($fh), 1) = 1;
		   }
		   return $bits;
	       }
	       $rin = fhbits(*STDIN, *TTY, *MYSOCK);

	   The usual idiom is:

	       ($nfound,$timeleft) =
		 select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, $timeout);

	   or to block until something becomes ready just do this

	       $nfound = select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, undef);

	   Most systems do not bother to return anything useful in $timeleft,
	   so calling select() in scalar context just returns $nfound.

	   Any of the bit masks can also be undef.  The timeout, if specified,
	   is in seconds, which may be fractional.  Note: not all
	   implementations are capable of returning the $timeleft.  If not,
	   they always return $timeleft equal to the supplied $timeout.

	   You can effect a sleep of 250 milliseconds this way:

	       select(undef, undef, undef, 0.25);

	   Note that whether "select" gets restarted after signals (say,
	   SIGALRM) is implementation-dependent.  See also perlport for notes
	   on the portability of "select".

	   On error, "select" behaves just like select(2): it returns -1 and
	   sets $!.

	   On some Unixes, select(2) may report a socket file descriptor as
	   "ready for reading" even when no data is available, and thus any
	   subsequent "read" would block.  This can be avoided if you always
	   use O_NONBLOCK on the socket.  See select(2) and fcntl(2) for
	   further details.

	   The standard "IO::Select" module provides a user-friendlier
	   interface to "select", mostly because it does all the bit-mask work
	   for you.

	   WARNING: One should not attempt to mix buffered I/O (like "read" or
	   <FH>) with "select", except as permitted by POSIX, and even then
	   only on POSIX systems.  You have to use "sysread" instead.

	   Portability issues: "select" in perlport.

       semctl ID,SEMNUM,CMD,ARG
	   Calls the System V IPC function semctl(2).  You'll probably have to
	   say

	       use IPC::SysV;

	   first to get the correct constant definitions.  If CMD is IPC_STAT
	   or GETALL, then ARG must be a variable that will hold the returned
	   semid_ds structure or semaphore value array.	 Returns like "ioctl":
	   the undefined value for error, ""0 but true"" for zero, or the
	   actual return value otherwise.  The ARG must consist of a vector of
	   native short integers, which may be created with
	   "pack("s!",(0)x$nsem)".  See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc,
	   "IPC::SysV", "IPC::Semaphore" documentation.

	   Portability issues: "semctl" in perlport.

       semget KEY,NSEMS,FLAGS
	   Calls the System V IPC function semget(2).  Returns the semaphore
	   id, or the undefined value on error.	 See also "SysV IPC" in
	   perlipc, "IPC::SysV", "IPC::SysV::Semaphore" documentation.

	   Portability issues: "semget" in perlport.

       semop KEY,OPSTRING
	   Calls the System V IPC function semop(2) for semaphore operations
	   such as signalling and waiting.  OPSTRING must be a packed array of
	   semop structures.  Each semop structure can be generated with
	   "pack("s!3", $semnum, $semop, $semflag)".  The length of OPSTRING
	   implies the number of semaphore operations.	Returns true if
	   successful, false on error.	As an example, the following code
	   waits on semaphore $semnum of semaphore id $semid:

	       $semop = pack("s!3", $semnum, -1, 0);
	       die "Semaphore trouble: $!\n" unless semop($semid, $semop);

	   To signal the semaphore, replace "-1" with 1.  See also "SysV IPC"
	   in perlipc, "IPC::SysV", and "IPC::SysV::Semaphore" documentation.

	   Portability issues: "semop" in perlport.

       send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS,TO
       send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS
	   Sends a message on a socket.	 Attempts to send the scalar MSG to
	   the SOCKET filehandle.  Takes the same flags as the system call of
	   the same name.  On unconnected sockets, you must specify a
	   destination to send to, in which case it does a sendto(2) syscall.
	   Returns the number of characters sent, or the undefined value on
	   error.  The sendmsg(2) syscall is currently unimplemented.  See
	   "UDP: Message Passing" in perlipc for examples.

	   Note the characters: depending on the status of the socket, either
	   (8-bit) bytes or characters are sent.  By default all sockets
	   operate on bytes, but for example if the socket has been changed
	   using binmode() to operate with the ":encoding(utf8)" I/O layer
	   (see "open", or the "open" pragma, open), the I/O will operate on
	   UTF-8 encoded Unicode characters, not bytes.	 Similarly for the
	   ":encoding" pragma: in that case pretty much any characters can be
	   sent.

       setpgrp PID,PGRP
	   Sets the current process group for the specified PID, 0 for the
	   current process.  Raises an exception when used on a machine that
	   doesn't implement POSIX setpgid(2) or BSD setpgrp(2).  If the
	   arguments are omitted, it defaults to "0,0".	 Note that the BSD 4.2
	   version of "setpgrp" does not accept any arguments, so only
	   "setpgrp(0,0)" is portable.	See also "POSIX::setsid()".

	   Portability issues: "setpgrp" in perlport.

       setpriority WHICH,WHO,PRIORITY
	   Sets the current priority for a process, a process group, or a
	   user.  (See setpriority(2).)	 Raises an exception when used on a
	   machine that doesn't implement setpriority(2).

	   Portability issues: "setpriority" in perlport.

       setsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME,OPTVAL
	   Sets the socket option requested.  Returns "undef" on error.	 Use
	   integer constants provided by the "Socket" module for LEVEL and
	   OPNAME.  Values for LEVEL can also be obtained from getprotobyname.
	   OPTVAL might either be a packed string or an integer.  An integer
	   OPTVAL is shorthand for pack("i", OPTVAL).

	   An example disabling Nagle's algorithm on a socket:

	       use Socket qw(IPPROTO_TCP TCP_NODELAY);
	       setsockopt($socket, IPPROTO_TCP, TCP_NODELAY, 1);

	   Portability issues: "setsockopt" in perlport.

       shift ARRAY
       shift EXPR
       shift
	   Shifts the first value of the array off and returns it, shortening
	   the array by 1 and moving everything down.  If there are no
	   elements in the array, returns the undefined value.	If ARRAY is
	   omitted, shifts the @_ array within the lexical scope of
	   subroutines and formats, and the @ARGV array outside a subroutine
	   and also within the lexical scopes established by the "eval
	   STRING", "BEGIN {}", "INIT {}", "CHECK {}", "UNITCHECK {}", and
	   "END {}" constructs.

	   Starting with Perl 5.14, "shift" can take a scalar EXPR, which must
	   hold a reference to an unblessed array.  The argument will be
	   dereferenced automatically.	This aspect of "shift" is considered
	   highly experimental.	 The exact behaviour may change in a future
	   version of Perl.

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code who are running
	   earlier versions of Perl with mysterious syntax errors, put this
	   sort of thing at the top of your file to signal that your code will
	   work only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.014;  # so push/pop/etc work on scalars (experimental)

	   See also "unshift", "push", and "pop".  "shift" and "unshift" do
	   the same thing to the left end of an array that "pop" and "push" do
	   to the right end.

       shmctl ID,CMD,ARG
	   Calls the System V IPC function shmctl.  You'll probably have to
	   say

	       use IPC::SysV;

	   first to get the correct constant definitions.  If CMD is
	   "IPC_STAT", then ARG must be a variable that will hold the returned
	   "shmid_ds" structure.  Returns like ioctl: "undef" for error; "0
	   but true" for zero; and the actual return value otherwise.  See
	   also "SysV IPC" in perlipc and "IPC::SysV" documentation.

	   Portability issues: "shmctl" in perlport.

       shmget KEY,SIZE,FLAGS
	   Calls the System V IPC function shmget.  Returns the shared memory
	   segment id, or "undef" on error.  See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc
	   and "IPC::SysV" documentation.

	   Portability issues: "shmget" in perlport.

       shmread ID,VAR,POS,SIZE
       shmwrite ID,STRING,POS,SIZE
	   Reads or writes the System V shared memory segment ID starting at
	   position POS for size SIZE by attaching to it, copying in/out, and
	   detaching from it.  When reading, VAR must be a variable that will
	   hold the data read.	When writing, if STRING is too long, only SIZE
	   bytes are used; if STRING is too short, nulls are written to fill
	   out SIZE bytes.  Return true if successful, false on error.
	   shmread() taints the variable.  See also "SysV IPC" in perlipc,
	   "IPC::SysV", and the "IPC::Shareable" module from CPAN.

	   Portability issues: "shmread" in perlport and "shmwrite" in
	   perlport.

       shutdown SOCKET,HOW
	   Shuts down a socket connection in the manner indicated by HOW,
	   which has the same interpretation as in the syscall of the same
	   name.

	       shutdown(SOCKET, 0);    # I/we have stopped reading data
	       shutdown(SOCKET, 1);    # I/we have stopped writing data
	       shutdown(SOCKET, 2);    # I/we have stopped using this socket

	   This is useful with sockets when you want to tell the other side
	   you're done writing but not done reading, or vice versa.  It's also
	   a more insistent form of close because it also disables the file
	   descriptor in any forked copies in other processes.

	   Returns 1 for success; on error, returns "undef" if the first
	   argument is not a valid filehandle, or returns 0 and sets $! for
	   any other failure.

       sin EXPR
       sin Returns the sine of EXPR (expressed in radians).  If EXPR is
	   omitted, returns sine of $_.

	   For the inverse sine operation, you may use the "Math::Trig::asin"
	   function, or use this relation:

	       sub asin { atan2($_[0], sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0])) }

       sleep EXPR
       sleep
	   Causes the script to sleep for (integer) EXPR seconds, or forever
	   if no argument is given.  Returns the integer number of seconds
	   actually slept.

	   May be interrupted if the process receives a signal such as
	   "SIGALRM".

	       eval {
		   local $SIG{ALARM} = sub { die "Alarm!\n" };
		   sleep;
	       };
	       die $@ unless $@ eq "Alarm!\n";

	   You probably cannot mix "alarm" and "sleep" calls, because "sleep"
	   is often implemented using "alarm".

	   On some older systems, it may sleep up to a full second less than
	   what you requested, depending on how it counts seconds.  Most
	   modern systems always sleep the full amount.	 They may appear to
	   sleep longer than that, however, because your process might not be
	   scheduled right away in a busy multitasking system.

	   For delays of finer granularity than one second, the Time::HiRes
	   module (from CPAN, and starting from Perl 5.8 part of the standard
	   distribution) provides usleep().  You may also use Perl's four-
	   argument version of select() leaving the first three arguments
	   undefined, or you might be able to use the "syscall" interface to
	   access setitimer(2) if your system supports it.  See perlfaq8 for
	   details.

	   See also the POSIX module's "pause" function.

       socket SOCKET,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
	   Opens a socket of the specified kind and attaches it to filehandle
	   SOCKET.  DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as for
	   the syscall of the same name.  You should "use Socket" first to get
	   the proper definitions imported.  See the examples in "Sockets:
	   Client/Server Communication" in perlipc.

	   On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag
	   will be set for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by
	   the value of $^F.  See "$^F" in perlvar.

       socketpair SOCKET1,SOCKET2,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
	   Creates an unnamed pair of sockets in the specified domain, of the
	   specified type.  DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same
	   as for the syscall of the same name.	 If unimplemented, raises an
	   exception.  Returns true if successful.

	   On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag
	   will be set for the newly opened file descriptors, as determined by
	   the value of $^F.  See "$^F" in perlvar.

	   Some systems defined "pipe" in terms of "socketpair", in which a
	   call to "pipe(Rdr, Wtr)" is essentially:

	       use Socket;
	       socketpair(Rdr, Wtr, AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, PF_UNSPEC);
	       shutdown(Rdr, 1);	# no more writing for reader
	       shutdown(Wtr, 0);	# no more reading for writer

	   See perlipc for an example of socketpair use.  Perl 5.8 and later
	   will emulate socketpair using IP sockets to localhost if your
	   system implements sockets but not socketpair.

	   Portability issues: "socketpair" in perlport.

       sort SUBNAME LIST
       sort BLOCK LIST
       sort LIST
	   In list context, this sorts the LIST and returns the sorted list
	   value.  In scalar context, the behaviour of "sort()" is undefined.

	   If SUBNAME or BLOCK is omitted, "sort"s in standard string
	   comparison order.  If SUBNAME is specified, it gives the name of a
	   subroutine that returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater
	   than 0, depending on how the elements of the list are to be
	   ordered.  (The "<=>" and "cmp" operators are extremely useful in
	   such routines.)  SUBNAME may be a scalar variable name
	   (unsubscripted), in which case the value provides the name of (or a
	   reference to) the actual subroutine to use.	In place of a SUBNAME,
	   you can provide a BLOCK as an anonymous, in-line sort subroutine.

	   If the subroutine's prototype is "($$)", the elements to be
	   compared are passed by reference in @_, as for a normal subroutine.
	   This is slower than unprototyped subroutines, where the elements to
	   be compared are passed into the subroutine as the package global
	   variables $a and $b (see example below).  Note that in the latter
	   case, it is usually highly counter-productive to declare $a and $b
	   as lexicals.

	   If the subroutine is an XSUB, the elements to be compared are
	   pushed on to the stack, the way arguments are usually passed to
	   XSUBs.  $a and $b are not set.

	   The values to be compared are always passed by reference and should
	   not be modified.

	   You also cannot exit out of the sort block or subroutine using any
	   of the loop control operators described in perlsyn or with "goto".

	   When "use locale" (but not "use locale 'not_characters'") is in
	   effect, "sort LIST" sorts LIST according to the current collation
	   locale.  See perllocale.

	   sort() returns aliases into the original list, much as a for loop's
	   index variable aliases the list elements.  That is, modifying an
	   element of a list returned by sort() (for example, in a "foreach",
	   "map" or "grep") actually modifies the element in the original
	   list.  This is usually something to be avoided when writing clear
	   code.

	   Perl 5.6 and earlier used a quicksort algorithm to implement sort.
	   That algorithm was not stable, so could go quadratic.  (A stable
	   sort preserves the input order of elements that compare equal.
	   Although quicksort's run time is O(NlogN) when averaged over all
	   arrays of length N, the time can be O(N**2), quadratic behavior,
	   for some inputs.)  In 5.7, the quicksort implementation was
	   replaced with a stable mergesort algorithm whose worst-case
	   behavior is O(NlogN).  But benchmarks indicated that for some
	   inputs, on some platforms, the original quicksort was faster.  5.8
	   has a sort pragma for limited control of the sort.  Its rather
	   blunt control of the underlying algorithm may not persist into
	   future Perls, but the ability to characterize the input or output
	   in implementation independent ways quite probably will.  See the
	   sort pragma.

	   Examples:

	       # sort lexically
	       @articles = sort @files;

	       # same thing, but with explicit sort routine
	       @articles = sort {$a cmp $b} @files;

	       # now case-insensitively
	       @articles = sort {fc($a) cmp fc($b)} @files;

	       # same thing in reversed order
	       @articles = sort {$b cmp $a} @files;

	       # sort numerically ascending
	       @articles = sort {$a <=> $b} @files;

	       # sort numerically descending
	       @articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files;

	       # this sorts the %age hash by value instead of key
	       # using an in-line function
	       @eldest = sort { $age{$b} <=> $age{$a} } keys %age;

	       # sort using explicit subroutine name
	       sub byage {
		   $age{$a} <=> $age{$b};  # presuming numeric
	       }
	       @sortedclass = sort byage @class;

	       sub backwards { $b cmp $a }
	       @harry  = qw(dog cat x Cain Abel);
	       @george = qw(gone chased yz Punished Axed);
	       print sort @harry;
		   # prints AbelCaincatdogx
	       print sort backwards @harry;
		   # prints xdogcatCainAbel
	       print sort @george, 'to', @harry;
		   # prints AbelAxedCainPunishedcatchaseddoggonetoxyz

	       # inefficiently sort by descending numeric compare using
	       # the first integer after the first = sign, or the
	       # whole record case-insensitively otherwise

	       my @new = sort {
		   ($b =~ /=(\d+)/)[0] <=> ($a =~ /=(\d+)/)[0]
				       ||
			       fc($a)  cmp  fc($b)
	       } @old;

	       # same thing, but much more efficiently;
	       # we'll build auxiliary indices instead
	       # for speed
	       my @nums = @caps = ();
	       for (@old) {
		   push @nums, ( /=(\d+)/ ? $1 : undef );
		   push @caps, fc($_);
	       }

	       my @new = @old[ sort {
				      $nums[$b] <=> $nums[$a]
					       ||
				      $caps[$a] cmp $caps[$b]
				    } 0..$#old
			     ];

	       # same thing, but without any temps
	       @new = map { $_->[0] }
		      sort { $b->[1] <=> $a->[1]
				      ||
			     $a->[2] cmp $b->[2]
		      } map { [$_, /=(\d+)/, fc($_)] } @old;

	       # using a prototype allows you to use any comparison subroutine
	       # as a sort subroutine (including other package's subroutines)
	       package other;
	       sub backwards ($$) { $_[1] cmp $_[0]; }	# $a and $b are
							# not set here
	       package main;
	       @new = sort other::backwards @old;

	       # guarantee stability, regardless of algorithm
	       use sort 'stable';
	       @new = sort { substr($a, 3, 5) cmp substr($b, 3, 5) } @old;

	       # force use of mergesort (not portable outside Perl 5.8)
	       use sort '_mergesort';  # note discouraging _
	       @new = sort { substr($a, 3, 5) cmp substr($b, 3, 5) } @old;

	   Warning: syntactical care is required when sorting the list
	   returned from a function.  If you want to sort the list returned by
	   the function call "find_records(@key)", you can use:

	       @contact = sort { $a cmp $b } find_records @key;
	       @contact = sort +find_records(@key);
	       @contact = sort &find_records(@key);
	       @contact = sort(find_records(@key));

	   If instead you want to sort the array @key with the comparison
	   routine "find_records()" then you can use:

	       @contact = sort { find_records() } @key;
	       @contact = sort find_records(@key);
	       @contact = sort(find_records @key);
	       @contact = sort(find_records (@key));

	   If you're using strict, you must not declare $a and $b as lexicals.
	   They are package globals.  That means that if you're in the "main"
	   package and type

	       @articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files;

	   then $a and $b are $main::a and $main::b (or $::a and $::b), but if
	   you're in the "FooPack" package, it's the same as typing

	       @articles = sort {$FooPack::b <=> $FooPack::a} @files;

	   The comparison function is required to behave.  If it returns
	   inconsistent results (sometimes saying $x[1] is less than $x[2] and
	   sometimes saying the opposite, for example) the results are not
	   well-defined.

	   Because "<=>" returns "undef" when either operand is "NaN" (not-a-
	   number), be careful when sorting with a comparison function like
	   "$a <=> $b" any lists that might contain a "NaN".  The following
	   example takes advantage that "NaN != NaN" to eliminate any "NaN"s
	   from the input list.

	       @result = sort { $a <=> $b } grep { $_ == $_ } @input;

       splice ARRAY or EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH,LIST
       splice ARRAY or EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH
       splice ARRAY or EXPR,OFFSET
       splice ARRAY or EXPR
	   Removes the elements designated by OFFSET and LENGTH from an array,
	   and replaces them with the elements of LIST, if any.	 In list
	   context, returns the elements removed from the array.  In scalar
	   context, returns the last element removed, or "undef" if no
	   elements are removed.  The array grows or shrinks as necessary.  If
	   OFFSET is negative then it starts that far from the end of the
	   array.  If LENGTH is omitted, removes everything from OFFSET
	   onward.  If LENGTH is negative, removes the elements from OFFSET
	   onward except for -LENGTH elements at the end of the array.	If
	   both OFFSET and LENGTH are omitted, removes everything.  If OFFSET
	   is past the end of the array, Perl issues a warning, and splices at
	   the end of the array.

	   The following equivalences hold (assuming "$#a >= $i" )

	       push(@a,$x,$y)	   splice(@a,@a,0,$x,$y)
	       pop(@a)		   splice(@a,-1)
	       shift(@a)	   splice(@a,0,1)
	       unshift(@a,$x,$y)   splice(@a,0,0,$x,$y)
	       $a[$i] = $y	   splice(@a,$i,1,$y)

	   Example, assuming array lengths are passed before arrays:

	       sub aeq {  # compare two list values
		   my(@a) = splice(@_,0,shift);
		   my(@b) = splice(@_,0,shift);
		   return 0 unless @a == @b;  # same len?
		   while (@a) {
		       return 0 if pop(@a) ne pop(@b);
		   }
		   return 1;
	       }
	       if (&aeq($len,@foo[1..$len],0+@bar,@bar)) { ... }

	   Starting with Perl 5.14, "splice" can take scalar EXPR, which must
	   hold a reference to an unblessed array.  The argument will be
	   dereferenced automatically.	This aspect of "splice" is considered
	   highly experimental.	 The exact behaviour may change in a future
	   version of Perl.

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code who are running
	   earlier versions of Perl with mysterious syntax errors, put this
	   sort of thing at the top of your file to signal that your code will
	   work only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.014;  # so push/pop/etc work on scalars (experimental)

       split /PATTERN/,EXPR,LIMIT
       split /PATTERN/,EXPR
       split /PATTERN/
       split
	   Splits the string EXPR into a list of strings and returns the list
	   in list context, or the size of the list in scalar context.

	   If only PATTERN is given, EXPR defaults to $_.

	   Anything in EXPR that matches PATTERN is taken to be a separator
	   that separates the EXPR into substrings (called "fields") that do
	   not include the separator.  Note that a separator may be longer
	   than one character or even have no characters at all (the empty
	   string, which is a zero-width match).

	   The PATTERN need not be constant; an expression may be used to
	   specify a pattern that varies at runtime.

	   If PATTERN matches the empty string, the EXPR is split at the match
	   position (between characters).  As an example, the following:

	       print join(':', split('b', 'abc')), "\n";

	   uses the 'b' in 'abc' as a separator to produce the output 'a:c'.
	   However, this:

	       print join(':', split('', 'abc')), "\n";

	   uses empty string matches as separators to produce the output
	   'a:b:c'; thus, the empty string may be used to split EXPR into a
	   list of its component characters.

	   As a special case for "split", the empty pattern given in match
	   operator syntax ("//") specifically matches the empty string, which
	   is contrary to its usual interpretation as the last successful
	   match.

	   If PATTERN is "/^/", then it is treated as if it used the multiline
	   modifier ("/^/m"), since it isn't much use otherwise.

	   As another special case, "split" emulates the default behavior of
	   the command line tool awk when the PATTERN is either omitted or a
	   literal string composed of a single space character (such as ' ' or
	   "\x20", but not e.g. "/ /").	 In this case, any leading whitespace
	   in EXPR is removed before splitting occurs, and the PATTERN is
	   instead treated as if it were "/\s+/"; in particular, this means
	   that any contiguous whitespace (not just a single space character)
	   is used as a separator.  However, this special treatment can be
	   avoided by specifying the pattern "/ /" instead of the string " ",
	   thereby allowing only a single space character to be a separator.
	   In earlier Perl's this special case was restricted to the use of a
	   plain " " as the pattern argument to split, in Perl 5.18.0 and
	   later this special case is triggered by any expression which
	   evaluates as the simple string " ".

	   If omitted, PATTERN defaults to a single space, " ", triggering the
	   previously described awk emulation.

	   If LIMIT is specified and positive, it represents the maximum
	   number of fields into which the EXPR may be split; in other words,
	   LIMIT is one greater than the maximum number of times EXPR may be
	   split.  Thus, the LIMIT value 1 means that EXPR may be split a
	   maximum of zero times, producing a maximum of one field (namely,
	   the entire value of EXPR).  For instance:

	       print join(':', split(//, 'abc', 1)), "\n";

	   produces the output 'abc', and this:

	       print join(':', split(//, 'abc', 2)), "\n";

	   produces the output 'a:bc', and each of these:

	       print join(':', split(//, 'abc', 3)), "\n";
	       print join(':', split(//, 'abc', 4)), "\n";

	   produces the output 'a:b:c'.

	   If LIMIT is negative, it is treated as if it were instead
	   arbitrarily large; as many fields as possible are produced.

	   If LIMIT is omitted (or, equivalently, zero), then it is usually
	   treated as if it were instead negative but with the exception that
	   trailing empty fields are stripped (empty leading fields are always
	   preserved); if all fields are empty, then all fields are considered
	   to be trailing (and are thus stripped in this case).	 Thus, the
	   following:

	       print join(':', split(',', 'a,b,c,,,')), "\n";

	   produces the output 'a:b:c', but the following:

	       print join(':', split(',', 'a,b,c,,,', -1)), "\n";

	   produces the output 'a:b:c:::'.

	   In time-critical applications, it is worthwhile to avoid splitting
	   into more fields than necessary.  Thus, when assigning to a list,
	   if LIMIT is omitted (or zero), then LIMIT is treated as though it
	   were one larger than the number of variables in the list; for the
	   following, LIMIT is implicitly 3:

	       ($login, $passwd) = split(/:/);

	   Note that splitting an EXPR that evaluates to the empty string
	   always produces zero fields, regardless of the LIMIT specified.

	   An empty leading field is produced when there is a positive-width
	   match at the beginning of EXPR.  For instance:

	       print join(':', split(/ /, ' abc')), "\n";

	   produces the output ':abc'.	However, a zero-width match at the
	   beginning of EXPR never produces an empty field, so that:

	       print join(':', split(//, ' abc'));

	   produces the output ' :a:b:c' (rather than ': :a:b:c').

	   An empty trailing field, on the other hand, is produced when there
	   is a match at the end of EXPR, regardless of the length of the
	   match (of course, unless a non-zero LIMIT is given explicitly, such
	   fields are removed, as in the last example).	 Thus:

	       print join(':', split(//, ' abc', -1)), "\n";

	   produces the output ' :a:b:c:'.

	   If the PATTERN contains capturing groups, then for each separator,
	   an additional field is produced for each substring captured by a
	   group (in the order in which the groups are specified, as per
	   backreferences); if any group does not match, then it captures the
	   "undef" value instead of a substring.  Also, note that any such
	   additional field is produced whenever there is a separator (that
	   is, whenever a split occurs), and such an additional field does not
	   count towards the LIMIT.  Consider the following expressions
	   evaluated in list context (each returned list is provided in the
	   associated comment):

	       split(/-|,/, "1-10,20", 3)
	       # ('1', '10', '20')

	       split(/(-|,)/, "1-10,20", 3)
	       # ('1', '-', '10', ',', '20')

	       split(/-|(,)/, "1-10,20", 3)
	       # ('1', undef, '10', ',', '20')

	       split(/(-)|,/, "1-10,20", 3)
	       # ('1', '-', '10', undef, '20')

	       split(/(-)|(,)/, "1-10,20", 3)
	       # ('1', '-', undef, '10', undef, ',', '20')

       sprintf FORMAT, LIST
	   Returns a string formatted by the usual "printf" conventions of the
	   C library function "sprintf".  See below for more details and see
	   sprintf(3) or printf(3) on your system for an explanation of the
	   general principles.

	   For example:

		   # Format number with up to 8 leading zeroes
		   $result = sprintf("%08d", $number);

		   # Round number to 3 digits after decimal point
		   $rounded = sprintf("%.3f", $number);

	   Perl does its own "sprintf" formatting: it emulates the C function
	   sprintf(3), but doesn't use it except for floating-point numbers,
	   and even then only standard modifiers are allowed.  Non-standard
	   extensions in your local sprintf(3) are therefore unavailable from
	   Perl.

	   Unlike "printf", "sprintf" does not do what you probably mean when
	   you pass it an array as your first argument.	 The array is given
	   scalar context, and instead of using the 0th element of the array
	   as the format, Perl will use the count of elements in the array as
	   the format, which is almost never useful.

	   Perl's "sprintf" permits the following universally-known
	   conversions:

	      %%    a percent sign
	      %c    a character with the given number
	      %s    a string
	      %d    a signed integer, in decimal
	      %u    an unsigned integer, in decimal
	      %o    an unsigned integer, in octal
	      %x    an unsigned integer, in hexadecimal
	      %e    a floating-point number, in scientific notation
	      %f    a floating-point number, in fixed decimal notation
	      %g    a floating-point number, in %e or %f notation

	   In addition, Perl permits the following widely-supported
	   conversions:

	      %X    like %x, but using upper-case letters
	      %E    like %e, but using an upper-case "E"
	      %G    like %g, but with an upper-case "E" (if applicable)
	      %b    an unsigned integer, in binary
	      %B    like %b, but using an upper-case "B" with the # flag
	      %p    a pointer (outputs the Perl value's address in hexadecimal)
	      %n    special: *stores* the number of characters output so far
		    into the next argument in the parameter list

	   Finally, for backward (and we do mean "backward") compatibility,
	   Perl permits these unnecessary but widely-supported conversions:

	      %i    a synonym for %d
	      %D    a synonym for %ld
	      %U    a synonym for %lu
	      %O    a synonym for %lo
	      %F    a synonym for %f

	   Note that the number of exponent digits in the scientific notation
	   produced by %e, %E, %g and %G for numbers with the modulus of the
	   exponent less than 100 is system-dependent: it may be three or less
	   (zero-padded as necessary).	In other words, 1.23 times ten to the
	   99th may be either "1.23e99" or "1.23e099".

	   Between the "%" and the format letter, you may specify several
	   additional attributes controlling the interpretation of the format.
	   In order, these are:

	   format parameter index
	       An explicit format parameter index, such as "2$".  By default
	       sprintf will format the next unused argument in the list, but
	       this allows you to take the arguments out of order:

		 printf '%2$d %1$d', 12, 34;	  # prints "34 12"
		 printf '%3$d %d %1$d', 1, 2, 3;  # prints "3 1 1"

	   flags
	       one or more of:

		  space	  prefix non-negative number with a space
		  +	  prefix non-negative number with a plus sign
		  -	  left-justify within the field
		  0	  use zeros, not spaces, to right-justify
		  #	  ensure the leading "0" for any octal,
			  prefix non-zero hexadecimal with "0x" or "0X",
			  prefix non-zero binary with "0b" or "0B"

	       For example:

		 printf '<% d>',  12;	# prints "< 12>"
		 printf '<%+d>',  12;	# prints "<+12>"
		 printf '<%6s>',  12;	# prints "<    12>"
		 printf '<%-6s>', 12;	# prints "<12	 >"
		 printf '<%06s>', 12;	# prints "<000012>"
		 printf '<%#o>',  12;	# prints "<014>"
		 printf '<%#x>',  12;	# prints "<0xc>"
		 printf '<%#X>',  12;	# prints "<0XC>"
		 printf '<%#b>',  12;	# prints "<0b1100>"
		 printf '<%#B>',  12;	# prints "<0B1100>"

	       When a space and a plus sign are given as the flags at once, a
	       plus sign is used to prefix a positive number.

		 printf '<%+ d>', 12;	# prints "<+12>"
		 printf '<% +d>', 12;	# prints "<+12>"

	       When the # flag and a precision are given in the %o conversion,
	       the precision is incremented if it's necessary for the leading
	       "0".

		 printf '<%#.5o>', 012;	     # prints "<00012>"
		 printf '<%#.5o>', 012345;   # prints "<012345>"
		 printf '<%#.0o>', 0;	     # prints "<0>"

	   vector flag
	       This flag tells Perl to interpret the supplied string as a
	       vector of integers, one for each character in the string.  Perl
	       applies the format to each integer in turn, then joins the
	       resulting strings with a separator (a dot "." by default).
	       This can be useful for displaying ordinal values of characters
	       in arbitrary strings:

		 printf "%vd", "AB\x{100}";	      # prints "65.66.256"
		 printf "version is v%vd\n", $^V;     # Perl's version

	       Put an asterisk "*" before the "v" to override the string to
	       use to separate the numbers:

		 printf "address is %*vX\n", ":", $addr;   # IPv6 address
		 printf "bits are %0*v8b\n", " ", $bits;   # random bitstring

	       You can also explicitly specify the argument number to use for
	       the join string using something like "*2$v"; for example:

		 printf '%*4$vX %*4$vX %*4$vX',	      # 3 IPv6 addresses
			 @addr[1..3], ":";

	   (minimum) width
	       Arguments are usually formatted to be only as wide as required
	       to display the given value.  You can override the width by
	       putting a number here, or get the width from the next argument
	       (with "*") or from a specified argument (e.g., with "*2$"):

		printf "<%s>", "a";	  # prints "<a>"
		printf "<%6s>", "a";	  # prints "<	  a>"
		printf "<%*s>", 6, "a";	  # prints "<	  a>"
		printf '<%*2$s>', "a", 6; # prints "<	  a>"
		printf "<%2s>", "long";	  # prints "<long>" (does not truncate)

	       If a field width obtained through "*" is negative, it has the
	       same effect as the "-" flag: left-justification.

	   precision, or maximum width
	       You can specify a precision (for numeric conversions) or a
	       maximum width (for string conversions) by specifying a "."
	       followed by a number.  For floating-point formats except "g"
	       and "G", this specifies how many places right of the decimal
	       point to show (the default being 6).  For example:

		 # these examples are subject to system-specific variation
		 printf '<%f>', 1;    # prints "<1.000000>"
		 printf '<%.1f>', 1;  # prints "<1.0>"
		 printf '<%.0f>', 1;  # prints "<1>"
		 printf '<%e>', 10;   # prints "<1.000000e+01>"
		 printf '<%.1e>', 10; # prints "<1.0e+01>"

	       For "g" and "G", this specifies the maximum number of digits to
	       show, including those prior to the decimal point and those
	       after it; for example:

		 # These examples are subject to system-specific variation.
		 printf '<%g>', 1;	  # prints "<1>"
		 printf '<%.10g>', 1;	  # prints "<1>"
		 printf '<%g>', 100;	  # prints "<100>"
		 printf '<%.1g>', 100;	  # prints "<1e+02>"
		 printf '<%.2g>', 100.01; # prints "<1e+02>"
		 printf '<%.5g>', 100.01; # prints "<100.01>"
		 printf '<%.4g>', 100.01; # prints "<100>"

	       For integer conversions, specifying a precision implies that
	       the output of the number itself should be zero-padded to this
	       width, where the 0 flag is ignored:

		 printf '<%.6d>', 1;	  # prints "<000001>"
		 printf '<%+.6d>', 1;	  # prints "<+000001>"
		 printf '<%-10.6d>', 1;	  # prints "<000001    >"
		 printf '<%10.6d>', 1;	  # prints "<	 000001>"
		 printf '<%010.6d>', 1;	  # prints "<	 000001>"
		 printf '<%+10.6d>', 1;	  # prints "<	+000001>"

		 printf '<%.6x>', 1;	  # prints "<000001>"
		 printf '<%#.6x>', 1;	  # prints "<0x000001>"
		 printf '<%-10.6x>', 1;	  # prints "<000001    >"
		 printf '<%10.6x>', 1;	  # prints "<	 000001>"
		 printf '<%010.6x>', 1;	  # prints "<	 000001>"
		 printf '<%#10.6x>', 1;	  # prints "<  0x000001>"

	       For string conversions, specifying a precision truncates the
	       string to fit the specified width:

		 printf '<%.5s>', "truncated";	 # prints "<trunc>"
		 printf '<%10.5s>', "truncated"; # prints "<	 trunc>"

	       You can also get the precision from the next argument using
	       ".*":

		 printf '<%.6x>', 1;	   # prints "<000001>"
		 printf '<%.*x>', 6, 1;	   # prints "<000001>"

	       If a precision obtained through "*" is negative, it counts as
	       having no precision at all.

		 printf '<%.*s>',  7, "string";	  # prints "<string>"
		 printf '<%.*s>',  3, "string";	  # prints "<str>"
		 printf '<%.*s>',  0, "string";	  # prints "<>"
		 printf '<%.*s>', -1, "string";	  # prints "<string>"

		 printf '<%.*d>',  1, 0;   # prints "<0>"
		 printf '<%.*d>',  0, 0;   # prints "<>"
		 printf '<%.*d>', -1, 0;   # prints "<0>"

	       You cannot currently get the precision from a specified number,
	       but it is intended that this will be possible in the future,
	       for example using ".*2$":

		 printf '<%.*2$x>', 1, 6;   # INVALID, but in future will print
					    # "<000001>"

	   size
	       For numeric conversions, you can specify the size to interpret
	       the number as using "l", "h", "V", "q", "L", or "ll".  For
	       integer conversions ("d u o x X b i D U O"), numbers are
	       usually assumed to be whatever the default integer size is on
	       your platform (usually 32 or 64 bits), but you can override
	       this to use instead one of the standard C types, as supported
	       by the compiler used to build Perl:

		  hh	      interpret integer as C type "char" or "unsigned
			      char" on Perl 5.14 or later
		  h	      interpret integer as C type "short" or
			      "unsigned short"
		  j	      interpret integer as C type "intmax_t" on Perl
			      5.14 or later, and only with a C99 compiler
			      (unportable)
		  l	      interpret integer as C type "long" or
			      "unsigned long"
		  q, L, or ll interpret integer as C type "long long",
			      "unsigned long long", or "quad" (typically
			      64-bit integers)
		  t	      interpret integer as C type "ptrdiff_t" on Perl
			      5.14 or later
		  z	      interpret integer as C type "size_t" on Perl 5.14
			      or later

	       As of 5.14, none of these raises an exception if they are not
	       supported on your platform.  However, if warnings are enabled,
	       a warning of the "printf" warning class is issued on an
	       unsupported conversion flag.  Should you instead prefer an
	       exception, do this:

		   use warnings FATAL => "printf";

	       If you would like to know about a version dependency before you
	       start running the program, put something like this at its top:

		   use 5.014;  # for hh/j/t/z/ printf modifiers

	       You can find out whether your Perl supports quads via Config:

		   use Config;
		   if ($Config{use64bitint} eq "define"
		       || $Config{longsize} >= 8) {
		       print "Nice quads!\n";
		   }

	       For floating-point conversions ("e f g E F G"), numbers are
	       usually assumed to be the default floating-point size on your
	       platform (double or long double), but you can force "long
	       double" with "q", "L", or "ll" if your platform supports them.
	       You can find out whether your Perl supports long doubles via
	       Config:

		   use Config;
		   print "long doubles\n" if $Config{d_longdbl} eq "define";

	       You can find out whether Perl considers "long double" to be the
	       default floating-point size to use on your platform via Config:

		   use Config;
		   if ($Config{uselongdouble} eq "define") {
		       print "long doubles by default\n";
		   }

	       It can also be that long doubles and doubles are the same
	       thing:

		       use Config;
		       ($Config{doublesize} == $Config{longdblsize}) &&
			       print "doubles are long doubles\n";

	       The size specifier "V" has no effect for Perl code, but is
	       supported for compatibility with XS code.  It means "use the
	       standard size for a Perl integer or floating-point number",
	       which is the default.

	   order of arguments
	       Normally, sprintf() takes the next unused argument as the value
	       to format for each format specification.	 If the format
	       specification uses "*" to require additional arguments, these
	       are consumed from the argument list in the order they appear in
	       the format specification before the value to format.  Where an
	       argument is specified by an explicit index, this does not
	       affect the normal order for the arguments, even when the
	       explicitly specified index would have been the next argument.

	       So:

		   printf "<%*.*s>", $a, $b, $c;

	       uses $a for the width, $b for the precision, and $c as the
	       value to format; while:

		 printf '<%*1$.*s>', $a, $b;

	       would use $a for the width and precision, and $b as the value
	       to format.

	       Here are some more examples; be aware that when using an
	       explicit index, the "$" may need escaping:

		 printf "%2\$d %d\n",	 12, 34;      # will print "34 12\n"
		 printf "%2\$d %d %d\n", 12, 34;      # will print "34 12 34\n"
		 printf "%3\$d %d %d\n", 12, 34, 56;  # will print "56 12 34\n"
		 printf "%2\$*3\$d %d\n", 12, 34, 3;  # will print " 34 12\n"

	   If "use locale" (including "use locale 'not_characters'") is in
	   effect and POSIX::setlocale() has been called, the character used
	   for the decimal separator in formatted floating-point numbers is
	   affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale.  See perllocale and POSIX.

       sqrt EXPR
       sqrt
	   Return the positive square root of EXPR.  If EXPR is omitted, uses
	   $_.	Works only for non-negative operands unless you've loaded the
	   "Math::Complex" module.

	       use Math::Complex;
	       print sqrt(-4);	  # prints 2i

       srand EXPR
       srand
	   Sets and returns the random number seed for the "rand" operator.

	   The point of the function is to "seed" the "rand" function so that
	   "rand" can produce a different sequence each time you run your
	   program.  When called with a parameter, "srand" uses that for the
	   seed; otherwise it (semi-)randomly chooses a seed.  In either case,
	   starting with Perl 5.14, it returns the seed.  To signal that your
	   code will work only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.014;  # so srand returns the seed

	   If "srand()" is not called explicitly, it is called implicitly
	   without a parameter at the first use of the "rand" operator.
	   However, there are a few situations where programs are likely to
	   want to call "srand".  One is for generating predictable results,
	   generally for testing or debugging.	There, you use "srand($seed)",
	   with the same $seed each time.  Another case is that you may want
	   to call "srand()" after a "fork()" to avoid child processes sharing
	   the same seed value as the parent (and consequently each other).

	   Do not call "srand()" (i.e., without an argument) more than once
	   per process.	 The internal state of the random number generator
	   should contain more entropy than can be provided by any seed, so
	   calling "srand()" again actually loses randomness.

	   Most implementations of "srand" take an integer and will silently
	   truncate decimal numbers.  This means "srand(42)" will usually
	   produce the same results as "srand(42.1)".  To be safe, always pass
	   "srand" an integer.

	   A typical use of the returned seed is for a test program which has
	   too many combinations to test comprehensively in the time available
	   to it each run.  It can test a random subset each time, and should
	   there be a failure, log the seed used for that run so that it can
	   later be used to reproduce the same results.

	   "rand()" is not cryptographically secure.  You should not rely on
	   it in security-sensitive situations.	 As of this writing, a number
	   of third-party CPAN modules offer random number generators intended
	   by their authors to be cryptographically secure, including:
	   Data::Entropy, Crypt::Random, Math::Random::Secure, and
	   Math::TrulyRandom.

       stat FILEHANDLE
       stat EXPR
       stat DIRHANDLE
       stat
	   Returns a 13-element list giving the status info for a file, either
	   the file opened via FILEHANDLE or DIRHANDLE, or named by EXPR.  If
	   EXPR is omitted, it stats $_ (not "_"!).  Returns the empty list if
	   "stat" fails.  Typically used as follows:

	       ($dev,$ino,$mode,$nlink,$uid,$gid,$rdev,$size,
		  $atime,$mtime,$ctime,$blksize,$blocks)
		      = stat($filename);

	   Not all fields are supported on all filesystem types.  Here are the
	   meanings of the fields:

	     0 dev	device number of filesystem
	     1 ino	inode number
	     2 mode	file mode  (type and permissions)
	     3 nlink	number of (hard) links to the file
	     4 uid	numeric user ID of file's owner
	     5 gid	numeric group ID of file's owner
	     6 rdev	the device identifier (special files only)
	     7 size	total size of file, in bytes
	     8 atime	last access time in seconds since the epoch
	     9 mtime	last modify time in seconds since the epoch
	    10 ctime	inode change time in seconds since the epoch (*)
	    11 blksize	preferred I/O size in bytes for interacting with the
			file (may vary from file to file)
	    12 blocks	actual number of system-specific blocks allocated
			on disk (often, but not always, 512 bytes each)

	   (The epoch was at 00:00 January 1, 1970 GMT.)

	   (*) Not all fields are supported on all filesystem types.  Notably,
	   the ctime field is non-portable.  In particular, you cannot expect
	   it to be a "creation time"; see "Files and Filesystems" in perlport
	   for details.

	   If "stat" is passed the special filehandle consisting of an
	   underline, no stat is done, but the current contents of the stat
	   structure from the last "stat", "lstat", or filetest are returned.
	   Example:

	       if (-x $file && (($d) = stat(_)) && $d < 0) {
		   print "$file is executable NFS file\n";
	       }

	   (This works on machines only for which the device number is
	   negative under NFS.)

	   Because the mode contains both the file type and its permissions,
	   you should mask off the file type portion and (s)printf using a
	   "%o" if you want to see the real permissions.

	       $mode = (stat($filename))[2];
	       printf "Permissions are %04o\n", $mode & 07777;

	   In scalar context, "stat" returns a boolean value indicating
	   success or failure, and, if successful, sets the information
	   associated with the special filehandle "_".

	   The File::stat module provides a convenient, by-name access
	   mechanism:

	       use File::stat;
	       $sb = stat($filename);
	       printf "File is %s, size is %s, perm %04o, mtime %s\n",
		      $filename, $sb->size, $sb->mode & 07777,
		      scalar localtime $sb->mtime;

	   You can import symbolic mode constants ("S_IF*") and functions
	   ("S_IS*") from the Fcntl module:

	       use Fcntl ':mode';

	       $mode = (stat($filename))[2];

	       $user_rwx      = ($mode & S_IRWXU) >> 6;
	       $group_read    = ($mode & S_IRGRP) >> 3;
	       $other_execute =	 $mode & S_IXOTH;

	       printf "Permissions are %04o\n", S_IMODE($mode), "\n";

	       $is_setuid     =	 $mode & S_ISUID;
	       $is_directory  =	 S_ISDIR($mode);

	   You could write the last two using the "-u" and "-d" operators.
	   Commonly available "S_IF*" constants are:

	       # Permissions: read, write, execute, for user, group, others.

	       S_IRWXU S_IRUSR S_IWUSR S_IXUSR
	       S_IRWXG S_IRGRP S_IWGRP S_IXGRP
	       S_IRWXO S_IROTH S_IWOTH S_IXOTH

	       # Setuid/Setgid/Stickiness/SaveText.
	       # Note that the exact meaning of these is system-dependent.

	       S_ISUID S_ISGID S_ISVTX S_ISTXT

	       # File types.  Not all are necessarily available on
	       # your system.

	       S_IFREG S_IFDIR S_IFLNK S_IFBLK S_IFCHR
	       S_IFIFO S_IFSOCK S_IFWHT S_ENFMT

	       # The following are compatibility aliases for S_IRUSR,
	       # S_IWUSR, and S_IXUSR.

	       S_IREAD S_IWRITE S_IEXEC

	   and the "S_IF*" functions are

	       S_IMODE($mode)	 the part of $mode containing the permission
				 bits and the setuid/setgid/sticky bits

	       S_IFMT($mode)	 the part of $mode containing the file type
				 which can be bit-anded with (for example)
				 S_IFREG or with the following functions

	       # The operators -f, -d, -l, -b, -c, -p, and -S.

	       S_ISREG($mode) S_ISDIR($mode) S_ISLNK($mode)
	       S_ISBLK($mode) S_ISCHR($mode) S_ISFIFO($mode) S_ISSOCK($mode)

	       # No direct -X operator counterpart, but for the first one
	       # the -g operator is often equivalent.  The ENFMT stands for
	       # record flocking enforcement, a platform-dependent feature.

	       S_ISENFMT($mode) S_ISWHT($mode)

	   See your native chmod(2) and stat(2) documentation for more details
	   about the "S_*" constants.  To get status info for a symbolic link
	   instead of the target file behind the link, use the "lstat"
	   function.

	   Portability issues: "stat" in perlport.

       state EXPR
       state TYPE EXPR
       state EXPR : ATTRS
       state TYPE EXPR : ATTRS
	   "state" declares a lexically scoped variable, just like "my".
	   However, those variables will never be reinitialized, contrary to
	   lexical variables that are reinitialized each time their enclosing
	   block is entered.  See "Persistent Private Variables" in perlsub
	   for details.

	   "state" variables are enabled only when the "use feature "state""
	   pragma is in effect, unless the keyword is written as
	   "CORE::state".  See also feature.

       study SCALAR
       study
	   Takes extra time to study SCALAR ($_ if unspecified) in
	   anticipation of doing many pattern matches on the string before it
	   is next modified.  This may or may not save time, depending on the
	   nature and number of patterns you are searching and the
	   distribution of character frequencies in the string to be searched;
	   you probably want to compare run times with and without it to see
	   which is faster.  Those loops that scan for many short constant
	   strings (including the constant parts of more complex patterns)
	   will benefit most.  (The way "study" works is this: a linked list
	   of every character in the string to be searched is made, so we
	   know, for example, where all the 'k' characters are.	 From each
	   search string, the rarest character is selected, based on some
	   static frequency tables constructed from some C programs and
	   English text.  Only those places that contain this "rarest"
	   character are examined.)

	   For example, here is a loop that inserts index producing entries
	   before any line containing a certain pattern:

	       while (<>) {
		   study;
		   print ".IX foo\n"	if /\bfoo\b/;
		   print ".IX bar\n"	if /\bbar\b/;
		   print ".IX blurfl\n" if /\bblurfl\b/;
		   # ...
		   print;
	       }

	   In searching for "/\bfoo\b/", only locations in $_ that contain "f"
	   will be looked at, because "f" is rarer than "o".  In general, this
	   is a big win except in pathological cases.  The only question is
	   whether it saves you more time than it took to build the linked
	   list in the first place.

	   Note that if you have to look for strings that you don't know till
	   runtime, you can build an entire loop as a string and "eval" that
	   to avoid recompiling all your patterns all the time.	 Together with
	   undefining $/ to input entire files as one record, this can be
	   quite fast, often faster than specialized programs like fgrep(1).
	   The following scans a list of files (@files) for a list of words
	   (@words), and prints out the names of those files that contain a
	   match:

	       $search = 'while (<>) { study;';
	       foreach $word (@words) {
		   $search .= "++\$seen{\$ARGV} if /\\b$word\\b/;\n";
	       }
	       $search .= "}";
	       @ARGV = @files;
	       undef $/;
	       eval $search;	    # this screams
	       $/ = "\n";	 # put back to normal input delimiter
	       foreach $file (sort keys(%seen)) {
		   print $file, "\n";
	       }

       sub NAME BLOCK
       sub NAME (PROTO) BLOCK
       sub NAME : ATTRS BLOCK
       sub NAME (PROTO) : ATTRS BLOCK
	   This is subroutine definition, not a real function per se.  Without
	   a BLOCK it's just a forward declaration.  Without a NAME, it's an
	   anonymous function declaration, so does return a value: the CODE
	   ref of the closure just created.

	   See perlsub and perlref for details about subroutines and
	   references; see attributes and Attribute::Handlers for more
	   information about attributes.

       __SUB__
	   A special token that returns a reference to the current subroutine,
	   or "undef" outside of a subroutine.

	   The behaviour of "__SUB__" within a regex code block (such as
	   "/(?{...})/") is subject to change.

	   This token is only available under "use v5.16" or the "current_sub"
	   feature.  See feature.

       substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH,REPLACEMENT
       substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH
       substr EXPR,OFFSET
	   Extracts a substring out of EXPR and returns it.  First character
	   is at offset zero.  If OFFSET is negative, starts that far back
	   from the end of the string.	If LENGTH is omitted, returns
	   everything through the end of the string.  If LENGTH is negative,
	   leaves that many characters off the end of the string.

	       my $s = "The black cat climbed the green tree";
	       my $color  = substr $s, 4, 5;	  # black
	       my $middle = substr $s, 4, -11;	  # black cat climbed the
	       my $end	  = substr $s, 14;	  # climbed the green tree
	       my $tail	  = substr $s, -4;	  # tree
	       my $z	  = substr $s, -4, 2;	  # tr

	   You can use the substr() function as an lvalue, in which case EXPR
	   must itself be an lvalue.  If you assign something shorter than
	   LENGTH, the string will shrink, and if you assign something longer
	   than LENGTH, the string will grow to accommodate it.	 To keep the
	   string the same length, you may need to pad or chop your value
	   using "sprintf".

	   If OFFSET and LENGTH specify a substring that is partly outside the
	   string, only the part within the string is returned.	 If the
	   substring is beyond either end of the string, substr() returns the
	   undefined value and produces a warning.  When used as an lvalue,
	   specifying a substring that is entirely outside the string raises
	   an exception.  Here's an example showing the behavior for boundary
	   cases:

	       my $name = 'fred';
	       substr($name, 4) = 'dy';		# $name is now 'freddy'
	       my $null = substr $name, 6, 2;	# returns "" (no warning)
	       my $oops = substr $name, 7;	# returns undef, with warning
	       substr($name, 7) = 'gap';	# raises an exception

	   An alternative to using substr() as an lvalue is to specify the
	   replacement string as the 4th argument.  This allows you to replace
	   parts of the EXPR and return what was there before in one
	   operation, just as you can with splice().

	       my $s = "The black cat climbed the green tree";
	       my $z = substr $s, 14, 7, "jumped from";	   # climbed
	       # $s is now "The black cat jumped from the green tree"

	   Note that the lvalue returned by the three-argument version of
	   substr() acts as a 'magic bullet'; each time it is assigned to, it
	   remembers which part of the original string is being modified; for
	   example:

	       $x = '1234';
	       for (substr($x,1,2)) {
		   $_ = 'a';   print $x,"\n";	 # prints 1a4
		   $_ = 'xyz'; print $x,"\n";	 # prints 1xyz4
		   $x = '56789';
		   $_ = 'pq';  print $x,"\n";	 # prints 5pq9
	       }

	   With negative offsets, it remembers its position from the end of
	   the string when the target string is modified:

	       $x = '1234';
	       for (substr($x, -3, 2)) {
		   $_ = 'a';   print $x,"\n";	 # prints 1a4, as above
		   $x = 'abcdefg';
		   print $_,"\n";		 # prints f
	       }

	   Prior to Perl version 5.10, the result of using an lvalue multiple
	   times was unspecified.  Prior to 5.16, the result with negative
	   offsets was unspecified.

       symlink OLDFILE,NEWFILE
	   Creates a new filename symbolically linked to the old filename.
	   Returns 1 for success, 0 otherwise.	On systems that don't support
	   symbolic links, raises an exception.	 To check for that, use eval:

	       $symlink_exists = eval { symlink("",""); 1 };

	   Portability issues: "symlink" in perlport.

       syscall NUMBER, LIST
	   Calls the system call specified as the first element of the list,
	   passing the remaining elements as arguments to the system call.  If
	   unimplemented, raises an exception.	The arguments are interpreted
	   as follows: if a given argument is numeric, the argument is passed
	   as an int.  If not, the pointer to the string value is passed.  You
	   are responsible to make sure a string is pre-extended long enough
	   to receive any result that might be written into a string.  You
	   can't use a string literal (or other read-only string) as an
	   argument to "syscall" because Perl has to assume that any string
	   pointer might be written through.  If your integer arguments are
	   not literals and have never been interpreted in a numeric context,
	   you may need to add 0 to them to force them to look like numbers.
	   This emulates the "syswrite" function (or vice versa):

	       require 'syscall.ph';	    # may need to run h2ph
	       $s = "hi there\n";
	       syscall(&SYS_write, fileno(STDOUT), $s, length $s);

	   Note that Perl supports passing of up to only 14 arguments to your
	   syscall, which in practice should (usually) suffice.

	   Syscall returns whatever value returned by the system call it
	   calls.  If the system call fails, "syscall" returns "-1" and sets
	   $! (errno).	Note that some system calls can legitimately return
	   "-1".  The proper way to handle such calls is to assign "$!=0"
	   before the call, then check the value of $! if "syscall" returns
	   "-1".

	   There's a problem with "syscall(&SYS_pipe)": it returns the file
	   number of the read end of the pipe it creates, but there is no way
	   to retrieve the file number of the other end.  You can avoid this
	   problem by using "pipe" instead.

	   Portability issues: "syscall" in perlport.

       sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE
       sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE,PERMS
	   Opens the file whose filename is given by FILENAME, and associates
	   it with FILEHANDLE.	If FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is
	   used as the real filehandle wanted; an undefined scalar will be
	   suitably autovivified.  This function calls the underlying
	   operating system's open(2) function with the parameters FILENAME,
	   MODE, and PERMS.

	   The possible values and flag bits of the MODE parameter are system-
	   dependent; they are available via the standard module "Fcntl".  See
	   the documentation of your operating system's open(2) syscall to see
	   which values and flag bits are available.  You may combine several
	   flags using the "|"-operator.

	   Some of the most common values are "O_RDONLY" for opening the file
	   in read-only mode, "O_WRONLY" for opening the file in write-only
	   mode, and "O_RDWR" for opening the file in read-write mode.

	   For historical reasons, some values work on almost every system
	   supported by Perl: 0 means read-only, 1 means write-only, and 2
	   means read/write.  We know that these values do not work under
	   OS/390 and on the Macintosh; you probably don't want to use them in
	   new code.

	   If the file named by FILENAME does not exist and the "open" call
	   creates it (typically because MODE includes the "O_CREAT" flag),
	   then the value of PERMS specifies the permissions of the newly
	   created file.  If you omit the PERMS argument to "sysopen", Perl
	   uses the octal value 0666.  These permission values need to be in
	   octal, and are modified by your process's current "umask".

	   In many systems the "O_EXCL" flag is available for opening files in
	   exclusive mode.  This is not locking: exclusiveness means here that
	   if the file already exists, sysopen() fails.	 "O_EXCL" may not work
	   on network filesystems, and has no effect unless the "O_CREAT" flag
	   is set as well.  Setting "O_CREAT|O_EXCL" prevents the file from
	   being opened if it is a symbolic link.  It does not protect against
	   symbolic links in the file's path.

	   Sometimes you may want to truncate an already-existing file.	 This
	   can be done using the "O_TRUNC" flag.  The behavior of "O_TRUNC"
	   with "O_RDONLY" is undefined.

	   You should seldom if ever use 0644 as argument to "sysopen",
	   because that takes away the user's option to have a more permissive
	   umask.  Better to omit it.  See the perlfunc(1) entry on "umask"
	   for more on this.

	   Note that "sysopen" depends on the fdopen() C library function.  On
	   many Unix systems, fdopen() is known to fail when file descriptors
	   exceed a certain value, typically 255.  If you need more file
	   descriptors than that, consider rebuilding Perl to use the "sfio"
	   library, or perhaps using the POSIX::open() function.

	   See perlopentut for a kinder, gentler explanation of opening files.

	   Portability issues: "sysopen" in perlport.

       sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
       sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
	   Attempts to read LENGTH bytes of data into variable SCALAR from the
	   specified FILEHANDLE, using the read(2).  It bypasses buffered IO,
	   so mixing this with other kinds of reads, "print", "write", "seek",
	   "tell", or "eof" can cause confusion because the perlio or stdio
	   layers usually buffers data.	 Returns the number of bytes actually
	   read, 0 at end of file, or undef if there was an error (in the
	   latter case $! is also set).	 SCALAR will be grown or shrunk so
	   that the last byte actually read is the last byte of the scalar
	   after the read.

	   An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data at some place in
	   the string other than the beginning.	 A negative OFFSET specifies
	   placement at that many characters counting backwards from the end
	   of the string.  A positive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR
	   results in the string being padded to the required size with "\0"
	   bytes before the result of the read is appended.

	   There is no syseof() function, which is ok, since eof() doesn't
	   work well on device files (like ttys) anyway.  Use sysread() and
	   check for a return value for 0 to decide whether you're done.

	   Note that if the filehandle has been marked as ":utf8" Unicode
	   characters are read instead of bytes (the LENGTH, OFFSET, and the
	   return value of sysread() are in Unicode characters).  The
	   ":encoding(...)" layer implicitly introduces the ":utf8" layer.
	   See "binmode", "open", and the "open" pragma, open.

       sysseek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
	   Sets FILEHANDLE's system position in bytes using lseek(2).
	   FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
	   filehandle.	The values for WHENCE are 0 to set the new position to
	   POSITION; 1 to set the it to the current position plus POSITION;
	   and 2 to set it to EOF plus POSITION, typically negative.

	   Note the in bytes: even if the filehandle has been set to operate
	   on characters (for example by using the ":encoding(utf8)" I/O
	   layer), tell() will return byte offsets, not character offsets
	   (because implementing that would render sysseek() unacceptably
	   slow).

	   sysseek() bypasses normal buffered IO, so mixing it with reads
	   other than "sysread" (for example "<>" or read()) "print", "write",
	   "seek", "tell", or "eof" may cause confusion.

	   For WHENCE, you may also use the constants "SEEK_SET", "SEEK_CUR",
	   and "SEEK_END" (start of the file, current position, end of the
	   file) from the Fcntl module.	 Use of the constants is also more
	   portable than relying on 0, 1, and 2.  For example to define a
	   "systell" function:

	       use Fcntl 'SEEK_CUR';
	       sub systell { sysseek($_[0], 0, SEEK_CUR) }

	   Returns the new position, or the undefined value on failure.	 A
	   position of zero is returned as the string "0 but true"; thus
	   "sysseek" returns true on success and false on failure, yet you can
	   still easily determine the new position.

       system LIST
       system PROGRAM LIST
	   Does exactly the same thing as "exec LIST", except that a fork is
	   done first and the parent process waits for the child process to
	   exit.  Note that argument processing varies depending on the number
	   of arguments.  If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if
	   LIST is an array with more than one value, starts the program given
	   by the first element of the list with arguments given by the rest
	   of the list.	 If there is only one scalar argument, the argument is
	   checked for shell metacharacters, and if there are any, the entire
	   argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing (this
	   is "/bin/sh -c" on Unix platforms, but varies on other platforms).
	   If there are no shell metacharacters in the argument, it is split
	   into words and passed directly to "execvp", which is more
	   efficient.

	   Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for output before any
	   operation that may do a fork, but this may not be supported on some
	   platforms (see perlport).  To be safe, you may need to set $|
	   ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the "autoflush()" method of
	   "IO::Handle" on any open handles.

	   The return value is the exit status of the program as returned by
	   the "wait" call.  To get the actual exit value, shift right by
	   eight (see below).  See also "exec".	 This is not what you want to
	   use to capture the output from a command; for that you should use
	   merely backticks or "qx//", as described in "`STRING`" in perlop.
	   Return value of -1 indicates a failure to start the program or an
	   error of the wait(2) system call (inspect $! for the reason).

	   If you'd like to make "system" (and many other bits of Perl) die on
	   error, have a look at the autodie pragma.

	   Like "exec", "system" allows you to lie to a program about its name
	   if you use the "system PROGRAM LIST" syntax.	 Again, see "exec".

	   Since "SIGINT" and "SIGQUIT" are ignored during the execution of
	   "system", if you expect your program to terminate on receipt of
	   these signals you will need to arrange to do so yourself based on
	   the return value.

	       @args = ("command", "arg1", "arg2");
	       system(@args) == 0
		   or die "system @args failed: $?"

	   If you'd like to manually inspect "system"'s failure, you can check
	   all possible failure modes by inspecting $? like this:

	       if ($? == -1) {
		   print "failed to execute: $!\n";
	       }
	       elsif ($? & 127) {
		   printf "child died with signal %d, %s coredump\n",
		       ($? & 127),  ($? & 128) ? 'with' : 'without';
	       }
	       else {
		   printf "child exited with value %d\n", $? >> 8;
	       }

	   Alternatively, you may inspect the value of
	   "${^CHILD_ERROR_NATIVE}" with the "W*()" calls from the POSIX
	   module.

	   When "system"'s arguments are executed indirectly by the shell,
	   results and return codes are subject to its quirks.	See "`STRING`"
	   in perlop and "exec" for details.

	   Since "system" does a "fork" and "wait" it may affect a "SIGCHLD"
	   handler.  See perlipc for details.

	   Portability issues: "system" in perlport.

       syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
       syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
       syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR
	   Attempts to write LENGTH bytes of data from variable SCALAR to the
	   specified FILEHANDLE, using write(2).  If LENGTH is not specified,
	   writes whole SCALAR.	 It bypasses buffered IO, so mixing this with
	   reads (other than sysread()), "print", "write", "seek", "tell", or
	   "eof" may cause confusion because the perlio and stdio layers
	   usually buffer data.	 Returns the number of bytes actually written,
	   or "undef" if there was an error (in this case the errno variable
	   $! is also set).  If the LENGTH is greater than the data available
	   in the SCALAR after the OFFSET, only as much data as is available
	   will be written.

	   An OFFSET may be specified to write the data from some part of the
	   string other than the beginning.  A negative OFFSET specifies
	   writing that many characters counting backwards from the end of the
	   string.  If SCALAR is of length zero, you can only use an OFFSET of
	   0.

	   WARNING: If the filehandle is marked ":utf8", Unicode characters
	   encoded in UTF-8 are written instead of bytes, and the LENGTH,
	   OFFSET, and return value of syswrite() are in (UTF8-encoded
	   Unicode) characters.	 The ":encoding(...)" layer implicitly
	   introduces the ":utf8" layer.  Alternately, if the handle is not
	   marked with an encoding but you attempt to write characters with
	   code points over 255, raises an exception.  See "binmode", "open",
	   and the "open" pragma, open.

       tell FILEHANDLE
       tell
	   Returns the current position in bytes for FILEHANDLE, or -1 on
	   error.  FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name
	   of the actual filehandle.  If FILEHANDLE is omitted, assumes the
	   file last read.

	   Note the in bytes: even if the filehandle has been set to operate
	   on characters (for example by using the ":encoding(utf8)" open
	   layer), tell() will return byte offsets, not character offsets
	   (because that would render seek() and tell() rather slow).

	   The return value of tell() for the standard streams like the STDIN
	   depends on the operating system: it may return -1 or something
	   else.  tell() on pipes, fifos, and sockets usually returns -1.

	   There is no "systell" function.  Use "sysseek(FH, 0, 1)" for that.

	   Do not use tell() (or other buffered I/O operations) on a
	   filehandle that has been manipulated by sysread(), syswrite(), or
	   sysseek().  Those functions ignore the buffering, while tell() does
	   not.

       telldir DIRHANDLE
	   Returns the current position of the "readdir" routines on
	   DIRHANDLE.  Value may be given to "seekdir" to access a particular
	   location in a directory.  "telldir" has the same caveats about
	   possible directory compaction as the corresponding system library
	   routine.

       tie VARIABLE,CLASSNAME,LIST
	   This function binds a variable to a package class that will provide
	   the implementation for the variable.	 VARIABLE is the name of the
	   variable to be enchanted.  CLASSNAME is the name of a class
	   implementing objects of correct type.  Any additional arguments are
	   passed to the appropriate constructor method of the class (meaning
	   "TIESCALAR", "TIEHANDLE", "TIEARRAY", or "TIEHASH").	 Typically
	   these are arguments such as might be passed to the "dbm_open()"
	   function of C.  The object returned by the constructor is also
	   returned by the "tie" function, which would be useful if you want
	   to access other methods in CLASSNAME.

	   Note that functions such as "keys" and "values" may return huge
	   lists when used on large objects, like DBM files.  You may prefer
	   to use the "each" function to iterate over such.  Example:

	       # print out history file offsets
	       use NDBM_File;
	       tie(%HIST, 'NDBM_File', '/usr/lib/news/history', 1, 0);
	       while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
		   print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
	       }
	       untie(%HIST);

	   A class implementing a hash should have the following methods:

	       TIEHASH classname, LIST
	       FETCH this, key
	       STORE this, key, value
	       DELETE this, key
	       CLEAR this
	       EXISTS this, key
	       FIRSTKEY this
	       NEXTKEY this, lastkey
	       SCALAR this
	       DESTROY this
	       UNTIE this

	   A class implementing an ordinary array should have the following
	   methods:

	       TIEARRAY classname, LIST
	       FETCH this, key
	       STORE this, key, value
	       FETCHSIZE this
	       STORESIZE this, count
	       CLEAR this
	       PUSH this, LIST
	       POP this
	       SHIFT this
	       UNSHIFT this, LIST
	       SPLICE this, offset, length, LIST
	       EXTEND this, count
	       DELETE this, key
	       EXISTS this, key
	       DESTROY this
	       UNTIE this

	   A class implementing a filehandle should have the following
	   methods:

	       TIEHANDLE classname, LIST
	       READ this, scalar, length, offset
	       READLINE this
	       GETC this
	       WRITE this, scalar, length, offset
	       PRINT this, LIST
	       PRINTF this, format, LIST
	       BINMODE this
	       EOF this
	       FILENO this
	       SEEK this, position, whence
	       TELL this
	       OPEN this, mode, LIST
	       CLOSE this
	       DESTROY this
	       UNTIE this

	   A class implementing a scalar should have the following methods:

	       TIESCALAR classname, LIST
	       FETCH this,
	       STORE this, value
	       DESTROY this
	       UNTIE this

	   Not all methods indicated above need be implemented.	 See perltie,
	   Tie::Hash, Tie::Array, Tie::Scalar, and Tie::Handle.

	   Unlike "dbmopen", the "tie" function will not "use" or "require" a
	   module for you; you need to do that explicitly yourself.  See
	   DB_File or the Config module for interesting "tie" implementations.

	   For further details see perltie, "tied VARIABLE".

       tied VARIABLE
	   Returns a reference to the object underlying VARIABLE (the same
	   value that was originally returned by the "tie" call that bound the
	   variable to a package.)  Returns the undefined value if VARIABLE
	   isn't tied to a package.

       time
	   Returns the number of non-leap seconds since whatever time the
	   system considers to be the epoch, suitable for feeding to "gmtime"
	   and "localtime".  On most systems the epoch is 00:00:00 UTC,
	   January 1, 1970; a prominent exception being Mac OS Classic which
	   uses 00:00:00, January 1, 1904 in the current local time zone for
	   its epoch.

	   For measuring time in better granularity than one second, use the
	   Time::HiRes module from Perl 5.8 onwards (or from CPAN before
	   then), or, if you have gettimeofday(2), you may be able to use the
	   "syscall" interface of Perl.	 See perlfaq8 for details.

	   For date and time processing look at the many related modules on
	   CPAN.  For a comprehensive date and time representation look at the
	   DateTime module.

       times
	   Returns a four-element list giving the user and system times in
	   seconds for this process and any exited children of this process.

	       ($user,$system,$cuser,$csystem) = times;

	   In scalar context, "times" returns $user.

	   Children's times are only included for terminated children.

	   Portability issues: "times" in perlport.

       tr///
	   The transliteration operator.  Same as "y///".  See "Quote and
	   Quote-like Operators" in perlop.

       truncate FILEHANDLE,LENGTH
       truncate EXPR,LENGTH
	   Truncates the file opened on FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR, to the
	   specified length.  Raises an exception if truncate isn't
	   implemented on your system.	Returns true if successful, "undef" on
	   error.

	   The behavior is undefined if LENGTH is greater than the length of
	   the file.

	   The position in the file of FILEHANDLE is left unchanged.  You may
	   want to call seek before writing to the file.

	   Portability issues: "truncate" in perlport.

       uc EXPR
       uc  Returns an uppercased version of EXPR.  This is the internal
	   function implementing the "\U" escape in double-quoted strings.  It
	   does not attempt to do titlecase mapping on initial letters.	 See
	   "ucfirst" for that.

	   If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.

	   This function behaves the same way under various pragma, such as in
	   a locale, as "lc" does.

       ucfirst EXPR
       ucfirst
	   Returns the value of EXPR with the first character in uppercase
	   (titlecase in Unicode).  This is the internal function implementing
	   the "\u" escape in double-quoted strings.

	   If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.

	   This function behaves the same way under various pragma, such as in
	   a locale, as "lc" does.

       umask EXPR
       umask
	   Sets the umask for the process to EXPR and returns the previous
	   value.  If EXPR is omitted, merely returns the current umask.

	   The Unix permission "rwxr-x---" is represented as three sets of
	   three bits, or three octal digits: 0750 (the leading 0 indicates
	   octal and isn't one of the digits).	The "umask" value is such a
	   number representing disabled permissions bits.  The permission (or
	   "mode") values you pass "mkdir" or "sysopen" are modified by your
	   umask, so even if you tell "sysopen" to create a file with
	   permissions 0777, if your umask is 0022, then the file will
	   actually be created with permissions 0755.  If your "umask" were
	   0027 (group can't write; others can't read, write, or execute),
	   then passing "sysopen" 0666 would create a file with mode 0640
	   (because "0666 &~ 027" is 0640).

	   Here's some advice: supply a creation mode of 0666 for regular
	   files (in "sysopen") and one of 0777 for directories (in "mkdir")
	   and executable files.  This gives users the freedom of choice: if
	   they want protected files, they might choose process umasks of 022,
	   027, or even the particularly antisocial mask of 077.  Programs
	   should rarely if ever make policy decisions better left to the
	   user.  The exception to this is when writing files that should be
	   kept private: mail files, web browser cookies, .rhosts files, and
	   so on.

	   If umask(2) is not implemented on your system and you are trying to
	   restrict access for yourself (i.e., "(EXPR & 0700) > 0"), raises an
	   exception.  If umask(2) is not implemented and you are not trying
	   to restrict access for yourself, returns "undef".

	   Remember that a umask is a number, usually given in octal; it is
	   not a string of octal digits.  See also "oct", if all you have is a
	   string.

	   Portability issues: "umask" in perlport.

       undef EXPR
       undef
	   Undefines the value of EXPR, which must be an lvalue.  Use only on
	   a scalar value, an array (using "@"), a hash (using "%"), a
	   subroutine (using "&"), or a typeglob (using "*").  Saying "undef
	   $hash{$key}" will probably not do what you expect on most
	   predefined variables or DBM list values, so don't do that; see
	   "delete".  Always returns the undefined value.  You can omit the
	   EXPR, in which case nothing is undefined, but you still get an
	   undefined value that you could, for instance, return from a
	   subroutine, assign to a variable, or pass as a parameter.
	   Examples:

	       undef $foo;
	       undef $bar{'blurfl'};	  # Compare to: delete $bar{'blurfl'};
	       undef @ary;
	       undef %hash;
	       undef &mysub;
	       undef *xyz;	 # destroys $xyz, @xyz, %xyz, &xyz, etc.
	       return (wantarray ? (undef, $errmsg) : undef) if $they_blew_it;
	       select undef, undef, undef, 0.25;
	       ($a, $b, undef, $c) = &foo;	 # Ignore third value returned

	   Note that this is a unary operator, not a list operator.

       unlink LIST
       unlink
	   Deletes a list of files.  On success, it returns the number of
	   files it successfully deleted.  On failure, it returns false and
	   sets $!  (errno):

	       my $unlinked = unlink 'a', 'b', 'c';
	       unlink @goners;
	       unlink glob "*.bak";

	   On error, "unlink" will not tell you which files it could not
	   remove.  If you want to know which files you could not remove, try
	   them one at a time:

		foreach my $file ( @goners ) {
		    unlink $file or warn "Could not unlink $file: $!";
		}

	   Note: "unlink" will not attempt to delete directories unless you
	   are superuser and the -U flag is supplied to Perl.  Even if these
	   conditions are met, be warned that unlinking a directory can
	   inflict damage on your filesystem.  Finally, using "unlink" on
	   directories is not supported on many operating systems.  Use
	   "rmdir" instead.

	   If LIST is omitted, "unlink" uses $_.

       unpack TEMPLATE,EXPR
       unpack TEMPLATE
	   "unpack" does the reverse of "pack": it takes a string and expands
	   it out into a list of values.  (In scalar context, it returns
	   merely the first value produced.)

	   If EXPR is omitted, unpacks the $_ string.  See perlpacktut for an
	   introduction to this function.

	   The string is broken into chunks described by the TEMPLATE.	Each
	   chunk is converted separately to a value.  Typically, either the
	   string is a result of "pack", or the characters of the string
	   represent a C structure of some kind.

	   The TEMPLATE has the same format as in the "pack" function.	Here's
	   a subroutine that does substring:

	       sub substr {
		   my($what,$where,$howmuch) = @_;
		   unpack("x$where a$howmuch", $what);
	       }

	   and then there's

	       sub ordinal { unpack("W",$_[0]); } # same as ord()

	   In addition to fields allowed in pack(), you may prefix a field
	   with a %<number> to indicate that you want a <number>-bit checksum
	   of the items instead of the items themselves.  Default is a 16-bit
	   checksum.  Checksum is calculated by summing numeric values of
	   expanded values (for string fields the sum of "ord($char)" is
	   taken; for bit fields the sum of zeroes and ones).

	   For example, the following computes the same number as the System V
	   sum program:

	       $checksum = do {
		   local $/;  # slurp!
		   unpack("%32W*",<>) % 65535;
	       };

	   The following efficiently counts the number of set bits in a bit
	   vector:

	       $setbits = unpack("%32b*", $selectmask);

	   The "p" and "P" formats should be used with care.  Since Perl has
	   no way of checking whether the value passed to "unpack()"
	   corresponds to a valid memory location, passing a pointer value
	   that's not known to be valid is likely to have disastrous
	   consequences.

	   If there are more pack codes or if the repeat count of a field or a
	   group is larger than what the remainder of the input string allows,
	   the result is not well defined: the repeat count may be decreased,
	   or "unpack()" may produce empty strings or zeros, or it may raise
	   an exception.  If the input string is longer than one described by
	   the TEMPLATE, the remainder of that input string is ignored.

	   See "pack" for more examples and notes.

       unshift ARRAY,LIST
       unshift EXPR,LIST
	   Does the opposite of a "shift".  Or the opposite of a "push",
	   depending on how you look at it.  Prepends list to the front of the
	   array and returns the new number of elements in the array.

	       unshift(@ARGV, '-e') unless $ARGV[0] =~ /^-/;

	   Note the LIST is prepended whole, not one element at a time, so the
	   prepended elements stay in the same order.  Use "reverse" to do the
	   reverse.

	   Starting with Perl 5.14, "unshift" can take a scalar EXPR, which
	   must hold a reference to an unblessed array.	 The argument will be
	   dereferenced automatically.	This aspect of "unshift" is considered
	   highly experimental.	 The exact behaviour may change in a future
	   version of Perl.

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code who are running
	   earlier versions of Perl with mysterious syntax errors, put this
	   sort of thing at the top of your file to signal that your code will
	   work only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.014;  # so push/pop/etc work on scalars (experimental)

       untie VARIABLE
	   Breaks the binding between a variable and a package.	 (See tie.)
	   Has no effect if the variable is not tied.

       use Module VERSION LIST
       use Module VERSION
       use Module LIST
       use Module
       use VERSION
	   Imports some semantics into the current package from the named
	   module, generally by aliasing certain subroutine or variable names
	   into your package.  It is exactly equivalent to

	       BEGIN { require Module; Module->import( LIST ); }

	   except that Module must be a bareword.  The importation can be made
	   conditional by using the if module.

	   In the peculiar "use VERSION" form, VERSION may be either a
	   positive decimal fraction such as 5.006, which will be compared to
	   $], or a v-string of the form v5.6.1, which will be compared to $^V
	   (aka $PERL_VERSION).	 An exception is raised if VERSION is greater
	   than the version of the current Perl interpreter; Perl will not
	   attempt to parse the rest of the file.  Compare with "require",
	   which can do a similar check at run time.  Symmetrically, "no
	   VERSION" allows you to specify that you want a version of Perl
	   older than the specified one.

	   Specifying VERSION as a literal of the form v5.6.1 should generally
	   be avoided, because it leads to misleading error messages under
	   earlier versions of Perl (that is, prior to 5.6.0) that do not
	   support this syntax.	 The equivalent numeric version should be used
	   instead.

	       use v5.6.1;     # compile time version check
	       use 5.6.1;      # ditto
	       use 5.006_001;  # ditto; preferred for backwards compatibility

	   This is often useful if you need to check the current Perl version
	   before "use"ing library modules that won't work with older versions
	   of Perl.  (We try not to do this more than we have to.)

	   "use VERSION" also enables all features available in the requested
	   version as defined by the "feature" pragma, disabling any features
	   not in the requested version's feature bundle.  See feature.
	   Similarly, if the specified Perl version is greater than or equal
	   to 5.12.0, strictures are enabled lexically as with "use strict".
	   Any explicit use of "use strict" or "no strict" overrides "use
	   VERSION", even if it comes before it.  In both cases, the
	   feature.pm and strict.pm files are not actually loaded.

	   The "BEGIN" forces the "require" and "import" to happen at compile
	   time.  The "require" makes sure the module is loaded into memory if
	   it hasn't been yet.	The "import" is not a builtin; it's just an
	   ordinary static method call into the "Module" package to tell the
	   module to import the list of features back into the current
	   package.  The module can implement its "import" method any way it
	   likes, though most modules just choose to derive their "import"
	   method via inheritance from the "Exporter" class that is defined in
	   the "Exporter" module.  See Exporter.  If no "import" method can be
	   found then the call is skipped, even if there is an AUTOLOAD
	   method.

	   If you do not want to call the package's "import" method (for
	   instance, to stop your namespace from being altered), explicitly
	   supply the empty list:

	       use Module ();

	   That is exactly equivalent to

	       BEGIN { require Module }

	   If the VERSION argument is present between Module and LIST, then
	   the "use" will call the VERSION method in class Module with the
	   given version as an argument.  The default VERSION method,
	   inherited from the UNIVERSAL class, croaks if the given version is
	   larger than the value of the variable $Module::VERSION.

	   Again, there is a distinction between omitting LIST ("import"
	   called with no arguments) and an explicit empty LIST "()" ("import"
	   not called).	 Note that there is no comma after VERSION!

	   Because this is a wide-open interface, pragmas (compiler
	   directives) are also implemented this way.  Currently implemented
	   pragmas are:

	       use constant;
	       use diagnostics;
	       use integer;
	       use sigtrap  qw(SEGV BUS);
	       use strict   qw(subs vars refs);
	       use subs	    qw(afunc blurfl);
	       use warnings qw(all);
	       use sort	    qw(stable _quicksort _mergesort);

	   Some of these pseudo-modules import semantics into the current
	   block scope (like "strict" or "integer", unlike ordinary modules,
	   which import symbols into the current package (which are effective
	   through the end of the file).

	   Because "use" takes effect at compile time, it doesn't respect the
	   ordinary flow control of the code being compiled.  In particular,
	   putting a "use" inside the false branch of a conditional doesn't
	   prevent it from being processed.  If a module or pragma only needs
	   to be loaded conditionally, this can be done using the if pragma:

	       use if $] < 5.008, "utf8";
	       use if WANT_WARNINGS, warnings => qw(all);

	   There's a corresponding "no" declaration that unimports meanings
	   imported by "use", i.e., it calls "unimport Module LIST" instead of
	   "import".  It behaves just as "import" does with VERSION, an
	   omitted or empty LIST, or no unimport method being found.

	       no integer;
	       no strict 'refs';
	       no warnings;

	   Care should be taken when using the "no VERSION" form of "no".  It
	   is only meant to be used to assert that the running Perl is of a
	   earlier version than its argument and not to undo the feature-
	   enabling side effects of "use VERSION".

	   See perlmodlib for a list of standard modules and pragmas.  See
	   perlrun for the "-M" and "-m" command-line options to Perl that
	   give "use" functionality from the command-line.

       utime LIST
	   Changes the access and modification times on each file of a list of
	   files.  The first two elements of the list must be the NUMERIC
	   access and modification times, in that order.  Returns the number
	   of files successfully changed.  The inode change time of each file
	   is set to the current time.	For example, this code has the same
	   effect as the Unix touch(1) command when the files already exist
	   and belong to the user running the program:

	       #!/usr/bin/perl
	       $atime = $mtime = time;
	       utime $atime, $mtime, @ARGV;

	   Since Perl 5.8.0, if the first two elements of the list are
	   "undef", the utime(2) syscall from your C library is called with a
	   null second argument.  On most systems, this will set the file's
	   access and modification times to the current time (i.e., equivalent
	   to the example above) and will work even on files you don't own
	   provided you have write permission:

	       for $file (@ARGV) {
		   utime(undef, undef, $file)
		       || warn "couldn't touch $file: $!";
	       }

	   Under NFS this will use the time of the NFS server, not the time of
	   the local machine.  If there is a time synchronization problem, the
	   NFS server and local machine will have different times.  The Unix
	   touch(1) command will in fact normally use this form instead of the
	   one shown in the first example.

	   Passing only one of the first two elements as "undef" is equivalent
	   to passing a 0 and will not have the effect described when both are
	   "undef".  This also triggers an uninitialized warning.

	   On systems that support futimes(2), you may pass filehandles among
	   the files.  On systems that don't support futimes(2), passing
	   filehandles raises an exception.  Filehandles must be passed as
	   globs or glob references to be recognized; barewords are considered
	   filenames.

	   Portability issues: "utime" in perlport.

       values HASH
       values ARRAY
       values EXPR
	   In list context, returns a list consisting of all the values of the
	   named hash.	In Perl 5.12 or later only, will also return a list of
	   the values of an array; prior to that release, attempting to use an
	   array argument will produce a syntax error.	In scalar context,
	   returns the number of values.

	   Hash entries are returned in an apparently random order.  The
	   actual random order is specific to a given hash; the exact same
	   series of operations on two hashes may result in a different order
	   for each hash. Any insertion into the hash may change the order, as
	   will any deletion, with the exception that the most recent key
	   returned by "each" or "keys" may be deleted without changing the
	   order. So long as a given hash is unmodified you may rely on
	   "keys", "values" and "each" to repeatedly return the same order as
	   each other. See "Algorithmic Complexity Attacks" in perlsec for
	   details on why hash order is randomized. Aside from the guarantees
	   provided here the exact details of Perl's hash algorithm and the
	   hash traversal order are subject to change in any release of Perl.

	   As a side effect, calling values() resets the HASH or ARRAY's
	   internal iterator, see "each".  (In particular, calling values() in
	   void context resets the iterator with no other overhead.  Apart
	   from resetting the iterator, "values @array" in list context is the
	   same as plain @array.  (We recommend that you use void context
	   "keys @array" for this, but reasoned that taking "values @array"
	   out would require more documentation than leaving it in.)

	   Note that the values are not copied, which means modifying them
	   will modify the contents of the hash:

	       for (values %hash)      { s/foo/bar/g }	# modifies %hash values
	       for (@hash{keys %hash}) { s/foo/bar/g }	# same

	   Starting with Perl 5.14, "values" can take a scalar EXPR, which
	   must hold a reference to an unblessed hash or array.	 The argument
	   will be dereferenced automatically.	This aspect of "values" is
	   considered highly experimental.  The exact behaviour may change in
	   a future version of Perl.

	       for (values $hashref) { ... }
	       for (values $obj->get_arrayref) { ... }

	   To avoid confusing would-be users of your code who are running
	   earlier versions of Perl with mysterious syntax errors, put this
	   sort of thing at the top of your file to signal that your code will
	   work only on Perls of a recent vintage:

	       use 5.012;  # so keys/values/each work on arrays
	       use 5.014;  # so keys/values/each work on scalars (experimental)

	   See also "keys", "each", and "sort".

       vec EXPR,OFFSET,BITS
	   Treats the string in EXPR as a bit vector made up of elements of
	   width BITS and returns the value of the element specified by OFFSET
	   as an unsigned integer.  BITS therefore specifies the number of
	   bits that are reserved for each element in the bit vector.  This
	   must be a power of two from 1 to 32 (or 64, if your platform
	   supports that).

	   If BITS is 8, "elements" coincide with bytes of the input string.

	   If BITS is 16 or more, bytes of the input string are grouped into
	   chunks of size BITS/8, and each group is converted to a number as
	   with pack()/unpack() with big-endian formats "n"/"N" (and
	   analogously for BITS==64).  See "pack" for details.

	   If bits is 4 or less, the string is broken into bytes, then the
	   bits of each byte are broken into 8/BITS groups.  Bits of a byte
	   are numbered in a little-endian-ish way, as in 0x01, 0x02, 0x04,
	   0x08, 0x10, 0x20, 0x40, 0x80.  For example, breaking the single
	   input byte "chr(0x36)" into two groups gives a list "(0x6, 0x3)";
	   breaking it into 4 groups gives "(0x2, 0x1, 0x3, 0x0)".

	   "vec" may also be assigned to, in which case parentheses are needed
	   to give the expression the correct precedence as in

	       vec($image, $max_x * $x + $y, 8) = 3;

	   If the selected element is outside the string, the value 0 is
	   returned.  If an element off the end of the string is written to,
	   Perl will first extend the string with sufficiently many zero
	   bytes.   It is an error to try to write off the beginning of the
	   string (i.e., negative OFFSET).

	   If the string happens to be encoded as UTF-8 internally (and thus
	   has the UTF8 flag set), this is ignored by "vec", and it operates
	   on the internal byte string, not the conceptual character string,
	   even if you only have characters with values less than 256.

	   Strings created with "vec" can also be manipulated with the logical
	   operators "|", "&", "^", and "~".  These operators will assume a
	   bit vector operation is desired when both operands are strings.
	   See "Bitwise String Operators" in perlop.

	   The following code will build up an ASCII string saying
	   'PerlPerlPerl'.  The comments show the string after each step.
	   Note that this code works in the same way on big-endian or little-
	   endian machines.

	       my $foo = '';
	       vec($foo,  0, 32) = 0x5065726C; # 'Perl'

	       # $foo eq "Perl" eq "\x50\x65\x72\x6C", 32 bits
	       print vec($foo, 0, 8);  # prints 80 == 0x50 == ord('P')

	       vec($foo,  2, 16) = 0x5065; # 'PerlPe'
	       vec($foo,  3, 16) = 0x726C; # 'PerlPerl'
	       vec($foo,  8,  8) = 0x50;   # 'PerlPerlP'
	       vec($foo,  9,  8) = 0x65;   # 'PerlPerlPe'
	       vec($foo, 20,  4) = 2;	   # 'PerlPerlPe'   . "\x02"
	       vec($foo, 21,  4) = 7;	   # 'PerlPerlPer'
					      # 'r' is "\x72"
	       vec($foo, 45,  2) = 3;	   # 'PerlPerlPer'  . "\x0c"
	       vec($foo, 93,  1) = 1;	   # 'PerlPerlPer'  . "\x2c"
	       vec($foo, 94,  1) = 1;	   # 'PerlPerlPerl'
					      # 'l' is "\x6c"

	   To transform a bit vector into a string or list of 0's and 1's, use
	   these:

	       $bits = unpack("b*", $vector);
	       @bits = split(//, unpack("b*", $vector));

	   If you know the exact length in bits, it can be used in place of
	   the "*".

	   Here is an example to illustrate how the bits actually fall in
	   place:

	     #!/usr/bin/perl -wl

	     print <<'EOT';
					       0	 1	   2	     3
				unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901
	     ------------------------------------------------------------------
	     EOT

	     for $w (0..3) {
		 $width = 2**$w;
		 for ($shift=0; $shift < $width; ++$shift) {
		     for ($off=0; $off < 32/$width; ++$off) {
			 $str = pack("B*", "0"x32);
			 $bits = (1<<$shift);
			 vec($str, $off, $width) = $bits;
			 $res = unpack("b*",$str);
			 $val = unpack("V", $str);
			 write;
		     }
		 }
	     }

	     format STDOUT =
	     vec($_,@#,@#) = @<< == @######### @>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
	     $off, $width, $bits, $val, $res
	     .
	     __END__

	   Regardless of the machine architecture on which it runs, the
	   example above should print the following table:

					       0	 1	   2	     3
				unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901
	     ------------------------------------------------------------------
	     vec($_, 0, 1) = 1	 ==	     1 10000000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 1) = 1	 ==	     2 01000000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 1) = 1	 ==	     4 00100000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 1) = 1	 ==	     8 00010000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 4, 1) = 1	 ==	    16 00001000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 5, 1) = 1	 ==	    32 00000100000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 6, 1) = 1	 ==	    64 00000010000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 7, 1) = 1	 ==	   128 00000001000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 8, 1) = 1	 ==	   256 00000000100000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 9, 1) = 1	 ==	   512 00000000010000000000000000000000
	     vec($_,10, 1) = 1	 ==	  1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
	     vec($_,11, 1) = 1	 ==	  2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
	     vec($_,12, 1) = 1	 ==	  4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
	     vec($_,13, 1) = 1	 ==	  8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
	     vec($_,14, 1) = 1	 ==	 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
	     vec($_,15, 1) = 1	 ==	 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
	     vec($_,16, 1) = 1	 ==	 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
	     vec($_,17, 1) = 1	 ==	131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
	     vec($_,18, 1) = 1	 ==	262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
	     vec($_,19, 1) = 1	 ==	524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
	     vec($_,20, 1) = 1	 ==    1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
	     vec($_,21, 1) = 1	 ==    2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
	     vec($_,22, 1) = 1	 ==    4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
	     vec($_,23, 1) = 1	 ==    8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
	     vec($_,24, 1) = 1	 ==   16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
	     vec($_,25, 1) = 1	 ==   33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
	     vec($_,26, 1) = 1	 ==   67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
	     vec($_,27, 1) = 1	 ==  134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
	     vec($_,28, 1) = 1	 ==  268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
	     vec($_,29, 1) = 1	 ==  536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
	     vec($_,30, 1) = 1	 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
	     vec($_,31, 1) = 1	 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
	     vec($_, 0, 2) = 1	 ==	     1 10000000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 2) = 1	 ==	     4 00100000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 2) = 1	 ==	    16 00001000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 2) = 1	 ==	    64 00000010000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 4, 2) = 1	 ==	   256 00000000100000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 5, 2) = 1	 ==	  1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 6, 2) = 1	 ==	  4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 7, 2) = 1	 ==	 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
	     vec($_, 8, 2) = 1	 ==	 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
	     vec($_, 9, 2) = 1	 ==	262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
	     vec($_,10, 2) = 1	 ==    1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
	     vec($_,11, 2) = 1	 ==    4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
	     vec($_,12, 2) = 1	 ==   16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
	     vec($_,13, 2) = 1	 ==   67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
	     vec($_,14, 2) = 1	 ==  268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
	     vec($_,15, 2) = 1	 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
	     vec($_, 0, 2) = 2	 ==	     2 01000000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 2) = 2	 ==	     8 00010000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 2) = 2	 ==	    32 00000100000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 2) = 2	 ==	   128 00000001000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 4, 2) = 2	 ==	   512 00000000010000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 5, 2) = 2	 ==	  2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 6, 2) = 2	 ==	  8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 7, 2) = 2	 ==	 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
	     vec($_, 8, 2) = 2	 ==	131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
	     vec($_, 9, 2) = 2	 ==	524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
	     vec($_,10, 2) = 2	 ==    2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
	     vec($_,11, 2) = 2	 ==    8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
	     vec($_,12, 2) = 2	 ==   33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
	     vec($_,13, 2) = 2	 ==  134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
	     vec($_,14, 2) = 2	 ==  536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
	     vec($_,15, 2) = 2	 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
	     vec($_, 0, 4) = 1	 ==	     1 10000000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 4) = 1	 ==	    16 00001000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 4) = 1	 ==	   256 00000000100000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 4) = 1	 ==	  4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 4, 4) = 1	 ==	 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
	     vec($_, 5, 4) = 1	 ==    1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
	     vec($_, 6, 4) = 1	 ==   16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
	     vec($_, 7, 4) = 1	 ==  268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
	     vec($_, 0, 4) = 2	 ==	     2 01000000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 4) = 2	 ==	    32 00000100000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 4) = 2	 ==	   512 00000000010000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 4) = 2	 ==	  8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 4, 4) = 2	 ==	131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
	     vec($_, 5, 4) = 2	 ==    2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
	     vec($_, 6, 4) = 2	 ==   33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
	     vec($_, 7, 4) = 2	 ==  536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
	     vec($_, 0, 4) = 4	 ==	     4 00100000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 4) = 4	 ==	    64 00000010000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 4) = 4	 ==	  1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 4) = 4	 ==	 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
	     vec($_, 4, 4) = 4	 ==	262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
	     vec($_, 5, 4) = 4	 ==    4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
	     vec($_, 6, 4) = 4	 ==   67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
	     vec($_, 7, 4) = 4	 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
	     vec($_, 0, 4) = 8	 ==	     8 00010000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 4) = 8	 ==	   128 00000001000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 4) = 8	 ==	  2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 4) = 8	 ==	 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
	     vec($_, 4, 4) = 8	 ==	524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
	     vec($_, 5, 4) = 8	 ==    8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
	     vec($_, 6, 4) = 8	 ==  134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
	     vec($_, 7, 4) = 8	 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
	     vec($_, 0, 8) = 1	 ==	     1 10000000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 8) = 1	 ==	   256 00000000100000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 8) = 1	 ==	 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 8) = 1	 ==   16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
	     vec($_, 0, 8) = 2	 ==	     2 01000000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 8) = 2	 ==	   512 00000000010000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 8) = 2	 ==	131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 8) = 2	 ==   33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
	     vec($_, 0, 8) = 4	 ==	     4 00100000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 8) = 4	 ==	  1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 8) = 4	 ==	262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 8) = 4	 ==   67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
	     vec($_, 0, 8) = 8	 ==	     8 00010000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 8) = 8	 ==	  2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 8) = 8	 ==	524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 8) = 8	 ==  134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
	     vec($_, 0, 8) = 16	 ==	    16 00001000000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 8) = 16	 ==	  4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 8) = 16	 ==    1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 8) = 16	 ==  268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
	     vec($_, 0, 8) = 32	 ==	    32 00000100000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 8) = 32	 ==	  8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 8) = 32	 ==    2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 8) = 32	 ==  536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
	     vec($_, 0, 8) = 64	 ==	    64 00000010000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 8) = 64	 ==	 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 8) = 64	 ==    4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
	     vec($_, 3, 8) = 64	 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
	     vec($_, 0, 8) = 128 ==	   128 00000001000000000000000000000000
	     vec($_, 1, 8) = 128 ==	 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
	     vec($_, 2, 8) = 128 ==    8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
	     vec($_, 3, 8) = 128 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001

       wait
	   Behaves like wait(2) on your system: it waits for a child process
	   to terminate and returns the pid of the deceased process, or "-1"
	   if there are no child processes.  The status is returned in $?  and
	   "${^CHILD_ERROR_NATIVE}".  Note that a return value of "-1" could
	   mean that child processes are being automatically reaped, as
	   described in perlipc.

	   If you use wait in your handler for $SIG{CHLD} it may accidentally
	   for the child created by qx() or system().  See perlipc for
	   details.

	   Portability issues: "wait" in perlport.

       waitpid PID,FLAGS
	   Waits for a particular child process to terminate and returns the
	   pid of the deceased process, or "-1" if there is no such child
	   process.  On some systems, a value of 0 indicates that there are
	   processes still running.  The status is returned in $? and
	   "${^CHILD_ERROR_NATIVE}".  If you say

	       use POSIX ":sys_wait_h";
	       #...
	       do {
		   $kid = waitpid(-1, WNOHANG);
	       } while $kid > 0;

	   then you can do a non-blocking wait for all pending zombie
	   processes.  Non-blocking wait is available on machines supporting
	   either the waitpid(2) or wait4(2) syscalls.	However, waiting for a
	   particular pid with FLAGS of 0 is implemented everywhere.  (Perl
	   emulates the system call by remembering the status values of
	   processes that have exited but have not been harvested by the Perl
	   script yet.)

	   Note that on some systems, a return value of "-1" could mean that
	   child processes are being automatically reaped.  See perlipc for
	   details, and for other examples.

	   Portability issues: "waitpid" in perlport.

       wantarray
	   Returns true if the context of the currently executing subroutine
	   or "eval" is looking for a list value.  Returns false if the
	   context is looking for a scalar.  Returns the undefined value if
	   the context is looking for no value (void context).

	       return unless defined wantarray; # don't bother doing more
	       my @a = complex_calculation();
	       return wantarray ? @a : "@a";

	   "wantarray()"'s result is unspecified in the top level of a file,
	   in a "BEGIN", "UNITCHECK", "CHECK", "INIT" or "END" block, or in a
	   "DESTROY" method.

	   This function should have been named wantlist() instead.

       warn LIST
	   Prints the value of LIST to STDERR.	If the last element of LIST
	   does not end in a newline, it appends the same file/line number
	   text as "die" does.

	   If the output is empty and $@ already contains a value (typically
	   from a previous eval) that value is used after appending
	   "\t...caught" to $@.	 This is useful for staying almost, but not
	   entirely similar to "die".

	   If $@ is empty then the string "Warning: Something's wrong" is
	   used.

	   No message is printed if there is a $SIG{__WARN__} handler
	   installed.  It is the handler's responsibility to deal with the
	   message as it sees fit (like, for instance, converting it into a
	   "die").  Most handlers must therefore arrange to actually display
	   the warnings that they are not prepared to deal with, by calling
	   "warn" again in the handler.	 Note that this is quite safe and will
	   not produce an endless loop, since "__WARN__" hooks are not called
	   from inside one.

	   You will find this behavior is slightly different from that of
	   $SIG{__DIE__} handlers (which don't suppress the error text, but
	   can instead call "die" again to change it).

	   Using a "__WARN__" handler provides a powerful way to silence all
	   warnings (even the so-called mandatory ones).  An example:

	       # wipe out *all* compile-time warnings
	       BEGIN { $SIG{'__WARN__'} = sub { warn $_[0] if $DOWARN } }
	       my $foo = 10;
	       my $foo = 20;	      # no warning about duplicate my $foo,
				      # but hey, you asked for it!
	       # no compile-time or run-time warnings before here
	       $DOWARN = 1;

	       # run-time warnings enabled after here
	       warn "\$foo is alive and $foo!";	    # does show up

	   See perlvar for details on setting %SIG entries and for more
	   examples.  See the Carp module for other kinds of warnings using
	   its carp() and cluck() functions.

       write FILEHANDLE
       write EXPR
       write
	   Writes a formatted record (possibly multi-line) to the specified
	   FILEHANDLE, using the format associated with that file.  By default
	   the format for a file is the one having the same name as the
	   filehandle, but the format for the current output channel (see the
	   "select" function) may be set explicitly by assigning the name of
	   the format to the $~ variable.

	   Top of form processing is handled automatically:  if there is
	   insufficient room on the current page for the formatted record, the
	   page is advanced by writing a form feed, a special top-of-page
	   format is used to format the new page header before the record is
	   written.  By default, the top-of-page format is the name of the
	   filehandle with "_TOP" appended.  This would be a problem with
	   autovivified filehandles, but it may be dynamically set to the
	   format of your choice by assigning the name to the $^ variable
	   while that filehandle is selected.  The number of lines remaining
	   on the current page is in variable "$-", which can be set to 0 to
	   force a new page.

	   If FILEHANDLE is unspecified, output goes to the current default
	   output channel, which starts out as STDOUT but may be changed by
	   the "select" operator.  If the FILEHANDLE is an EXPR, then the
	   expression is evaluated and the resulting string is used to look up
	   the name of the FILEHANDLE at run time.  For more on formats, see
	   perlform.

	   Note that write is not the opposite of "read".  Unfortunately.

       y///
	   The transliteration operator.  Same as "tr///".  See "Quote and
	   Quote-like Operators" in perlop.

   Non-function Keywords by Cross-reference
       perldata

       __DATA__
       __END__
	   These keywords are documented in "Special Literals" in perldata.

       perlmod

       BEGIN
       CHECK
       END
       INIT
       UNITCHECK
	   These compile phase keywords are documented in "BEGIN, UNITCHECK,
	   CHECK, INIT and END" in perlmod.

       perlobj

       DESTROY
	   This method keyword is documented in "Destructors" in perlobj.

       perlop

       and
       cmp
       eq
       ge
       gt
       if
       le
       lt
       ne
       not
       or
       x
       xor These operators are documented in perlop.

       perlsub

       AUTOLOAD
	   This keyword is documented in "Autoloading" in perlsub.

       perlsyn

       else
       elseif
       elsif
       for
       foreach
       unless
       until
       while
	   These flow-control keywords are documented in "Compound Statements"
	   in perlsyn.

       default
       given
       when
	   These flow-control keywords related to the experimental switch
	   feature are documented in "Switch Statements" in perlsyn .

perl v5.18.2			  2014-01-06		       PERLFUNC(1perl)
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