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MAN-PAGES(7)		   Linux Programmer's Manual		  MAN-PAGES(7)

NAME
       man-pages - conventions for writing Linux man pages

SYNOPSIS
       man [section] title

DESCRIPTION
       This  page describes the conventions that should be employed when writ‐
       ing man pages for the Linux  man-pages  project,	 which	documents  the
       user-space API provided by the Linux kernel and the GNU C library.  The
       project thus provides most of the pages in Section 2, as well  as  many
       of the pages that appear in Sections 3, 4, 5, and 7 of the man pages on
       a Linux system.	The conventions described on this  page	 may  also  be
       useful for authors writing man pages for other projects.

   Sections of the manual pages
       The manual Sections are traditionally defined as follows:

       1 Commands (Programs)
		 Those commands that can be executed by the user from within a
		 shell.

       2 System calls
		 Those functions which must be performed by the kernel.

       3 Library calls
		 Most of the libc functions.

       4 Special files (devices)
		 Files found in /dev.

       5 File formats and conventions
		 The format for /etc/passwd and other human-readable files.

       6 Games

       7 Overview, conventions, and miscellaneous
		 Overviews of various topics, conventions and protocols, char‐
		 acter set standards, and miscellaneous other things.

       8 System management commands
		 Commands like mount(8), many of which only root can execute.

   Macro package
       New  manual  pages  should be marked up using the groff an.tmac package
       described in man(7).  This choice is mainly for consistency:  the  vast
       majority	 of  existing  Linux  manual  pages  are marked up using these
       macros.

   Conventions for source file layout
       Please limit source code line length to no more than about  75  charac‐
       ters  wherever  possible.   This helps avoid line-wrapping in some mail
       clients when patches are submitted inline.

       New sentences should be started on new lines.  This makes it easier  to
       see the effect of patches, which often operate at the level of individ‐
       ual sentences.

   Title line
       The first command in a man page should be a TH command:

	      .TH title section date source manual

       where:

	      title	The title of the man page, written in all caps	(e.g.,
			MAN-PAGES).

	      section	The  section  number  in  which the man page should be
			placed (e.g., 7).

	      date	The date of the last revision—remember to change  this
			every  time  a	nontrivial  change  is made to the man
			page.  Dates should be written in the form YYYY-MM-DD.

	      source	The source of the command, function, or system call.

			For those few man-pages pages in  Sections  1  and  8,
			probably you just want to write GNU.

			For system calls, just write Linux.  (An earlier prac‐
			tice was to write the version  number  of  the	kernel
			from  which the manual page was being written/checked.
			However, this was never done consistently, and so  was
			probably  worse	 than  including  no  version  number.
			Henceforth, avoid including a version number.)

			For library calls that are part of glibc or one of the
			other  common  GNU  libraries, just use GNU C Library,
			GNU, or an empty string.

			For Section 4 pages, use Linux.

			In cases of doubt, just write Linux, or GNU.

	      manual	The title of the manual (e.g., for  Section  2	and  3
			pages in the man-pages package, use Linux Programmer's
			Manual).

   Sections within a manual page
       The list below shows conventional or suggested sections.	  Most	manual
       pages  should include at least the highlighted sections.	 Arrange a new
       manual page so that sections are placed in the order shown in the list.

	    NAME
	    SYNOPSIS
	    CONFIGURATION      [Normally only in Section 4]
	    DESCRIPTION
	    OPTIONS	       [Normally only in Sections 1, 8]
	    EXIT STATUS	       [Normally only in Sections 1, 8]
	    RETURN VALUE       [Normally only in Sections 2, 3]
	    ERRORS	       [Typically only in Sections 2, 3]
	    ENVIRONMENT
	    FILES
	    VERSIONS	       [Normally only in Sections 2, 3]
	    ATTRIBUTES	       [Normally only in Sections 2, 3]
	    CONFORMING TO
	    NOTES
	    BUGS
	    EXAMPLE
	    SEE ALSO

       Where a traditional heading would apply, please use it;	this  kind  of
       consistency  can	 make  the  information	 easier to understand.	If you
       must, you can create your own headings if they make  things  easier  to
       understand  (this  can be especially useful for pages in Sections 4 and
       5).  However, before doing this, consider whether  you  could  use  the
       traditional  headings,  with  some  subsections (.SS) within those sec‐
       tions.

       The following list elaborates on the contents of each of the above sec‐
       tions.

       NAME	     The  name	of this manual page.  See man(7) for important
		     details of the line(s) that should follow	the  .SH  NAME
		     command.	All  words  in	this  line (including the word
		     immediately following the "\-") should be	in  lowercase,
		     except  where English or technical terminological conven‐
		     tion dictates otherwise.

       SYNOPSIS	     briefly describes the command  or	function's  interface.
		     For  commands,  this  shows the syntax of the command and
		     its arguments (including options); boldface is  used  for
		     as-is  text  and italics are used to indicate replaceable
		     arguments.	 Brackets ([])	surround  optional  arguments,
		     vertical  bars  (|)  separate choices, and ellipses (...)
		     can be repeated.  For functions, it  shows	 any  required
		     data declarations or #include directives, followed by the
		     function declaration.

		     Where a feature test macro must be defined	 in  order  to
		     obtain the declaration of a function (or a variable) from
		     a header file, then the SYNOPSIS should indicate this, as
		     described in feature_test_macros(7).

       CONFIGURATION Configuration  details  for  a device.  This section nor‐
		     mally appears only in Section 4 pages.

       DESCRIPTION   gives an explanation of what the  program,	 function,  or
		     format  does.   Discuss  how  it interacts with files and
		     standard input, and what it produces on  standard	output
		     or	 standard  error.   Omit  internals and implementation
		     details unless they're  critical  for  understanding  the
		     interface.	  Describe  the usual case; for information on
		     command-line options of a program use  the	 OPTIONS  sec‐
		     tion.

		     When  describing  new  behavior or new flags for a system
		     call or library function, be careful to note  the	kernel
		     or	 C  library  version  that introduced the change.  The
		     preferred method of noting this information for flags  is
		     as part of a .TP list, in the following form (here, for a
		     new system call flag):

			     XYZ_FLAG (since Linux 3.7)
				    Description of flag...

		     Including version information is	especially  useful  to
		     users  who	 are  constrained  to  using older kernel or C
		     library versions (which is typical in  embedded  systems,
		     for example).

       OPTIONS	     describes	the command-line options accepted by a program
		     and how they change its behavior.	 This  section	should
		     appear only for Section 1 and 8 manual pages.

       EXIT STATUS   lists  the	 possible  exit status values of a program and
		     the conditions that cause these values  to	 be  returned.
		     This  section should appear only for Section 1 and 8 man‐
		     ual pages.

       RETURN VALUE  For Section 2 and 3 pages, this section gives a  list  of
		     the  values the library routine will return to the caller
		     and  the  conditions  that	 cause	these  values  to   be
		     returned.

       ERRORS	     For  Section  2 and 3 manual pages, this is a list of the
		     values that may be placed in errno in  the	 event	of  an
		     error,  along  with  information  about  the cause of the
		     errors.  The error list should be in alphabetical order.

       ENVIRONMENT   lists all environment variables that affect  the  program
		     or function and how they affect it.

       FILES	     lists  the	 files	the  program or function uses, such as
		     configuration files, startup files, and files the program
		     directly  operates	 on.   Give the full pathname of these
		     files, and use the installation  process  to  modify  the
		     directory	part to match user preferences.	 For many pro‐
		     grams,  the   default   installation   location   is   in
		     /usr/local,   so	your   base  manual  page  should  use
		     /usr/local as the base.

       ATTRIBUTES    A summary of various attributes of the function(s)	 docu‐
		     mented  on	 this page, broken into subsections.  The fol‐
		     lowing subsections are defined:

		     Multithreading (see pthreads(7))
			    This subsection notes attributes relating to  mul‐
			    tithreaded applications:

			    *  Whether the function is thread-safe.

			    *  Whether the function is a cancellation point.

			    *  Whether the function is async-cancel-safe.

			    Details  of	 these	attributes  can	 be  found  in
			    pthreads(7).

       VERSIONS	     A brief summary of the Linux  kernel  or  glibc  versions
		     where  a  system  call  or	 library function appeared, or
		     changed significantly in its  operation.	As  a  general
		     rule,  every new interface should include a VERSIONS sec‐
		     tion in its manual page.	Unfortunately,	many  existing
		     manual  pages don't include this information (since there
		     was no policy to do so when they were written).   Patches
		     to	 remedy this are welcome, but, from the perspective of
		     programmers writing new code, this	 information  probably
		     matters  only  in the case of kernel interfaces that have
		     been added in Linux 2.4 or	 later	(i.e.,	changes	 since
		     kernel  2.2),  and library functions that have been added
		     to glibc since version 2.1	 (i.e.,	 changes  since	 glibc
		     2.0).

		     The  syscalls(2)  manual  page  also provides information
		     about kernel versions in which various system calls first
		     appeared.

       CONFORMING TO describes any standards or conventions that relate to the
		     function or command described by the  manual  page.   The
		     preferred	terms  to  use	for  the various standards are
		     listed as headings in standards(7).  For a page  in  Sec‐
		     tion  2  or  3, this section should note the POSIX.1 ver‐
		     sion(s) that the call conforms to, and also  whether  the
		     call  is  specified  in C99.  (Don't worry too much about
		     other standards like SUS, SUSv2, and XPG, or the SVr4 and
		     4.xBSD  implementation  standards,	 unless	 the  call was
		     specified in those standards, but isn't  in  the  current
		     version of POSIX.1.)  (See standards(7).)

		     If the call is not governed by any standards but commonly
		     exists on other systems,  note  them.   If	 the  call  is
		     Linux-specific, note this.

		     If	 this  section	consists  of  just a list of standards
		     (which it commonly	 does),	 terminate  the	 list  with  a
		     period ('.').

       NOTES	     provides  miscellaneous  notes.   For Section 2 and 3 man
		     pages you may find it useful to include subsections  (SS)
		     named Linux Notes and Glibc Notes.

       BUGS	     lists  limitations,  known defects or inconveniences, and
		     other questionable activities.

       EXAMPLE	     provides one or more examples describing how  this	 func‐
		     tion,  file  or  command is used.	For details on writing
		     example programs, see Example Programs below.

       AUTHORS	     lists authors of the documentation or program.  Use of an
		     AUTHORS  section  is strongly discouraged.	 Generally, it
		     is better not to clutter every page with a list of	 (over
		     time  potentially numerous) authors; if you write or sig‐
		     nificantly amend a page, add a copyright notice as a com‐
		     ment  in  the  source  file.   If you are the author of a
		     device driver and want to include an address for  report‐
		     ing bugs, place this under the BUGS section.

       SEE ALSO	     provides  a  comma-separated  list	 of related man pages,
		     ordered by section	 number	 and  then  alphabetically  by
		     name,  possibly  followed by other related pages or docu‐
		     ments.  Do not terminate this with a period.

		     Where the SEE ALSO list contains many  long  manual  page
		     names, to improve the visual result of the output, it may
		     be useful to employ the .ad l (don't right	 justify)  and
		     .nh  (don't  hyphenate) directives.  Hyphenation of indi‐
		     vidual page names can be  prevented  by  preceding	 words
		     with the string "\%".

STYLE GUIDE
       The  following  subsections  describe  the preferred style for the man-
       pages project.  For details not covered below, the  Chicago  Manual  of
       Style is usually a good source; try also grepping for preexisting usage
       in the project source tree.

   Use of gender-neutral language
       As far as possible, use gender-neutral language	in  the	 text  of  man
       pages.  Use of "they" ("them", "themself", "their") as a gender-neutral
       singular pronoun is acceptable.

   Font conventions
       For functions, the arguments are always specified using	italics,  even
       in the SYNOPSIS section, where the rest of the function is specified in
       bold:

	   int myfunction(int argc, char **argv);

       Variable names should, like argument names, be specified in italics.

       Filenames (whether pathnames, or references to header files) are always
       in  italics  (e.g.,  <stdio.h>),	 except in the SYNOPSIS section, where
       included files are in bold (e.g., #include <stdio.h>).  When  referring
       to  a  standard header file include, specify the header file surrounded
       by angle brackets, in the usual C way (e.g., <stdio.h>).

       Special macros, which are usually in uppercase, are in bold (e.g., MAX‐
       INT).  Exception: don't boldface NULL.

       When  enumerating  a  list  of error codes, the codes are in bold (this
       list usually uses the .TP macro).

       Complete commands should, if long, be written as an  indented  line  on
       their own, with a blank line before and after the command, for example

	   man 7 man-pages

       If the command is short, then it can be included inline in the text, in
       italic format, for example, man 7 man-pages.  In this case, it  may  be
       worth  using  nonbreaking  spaces ("\ ") at suitable places in the com‐
       mand.  Command options should be written in italics (e.g., -l).

       Expressions, if not written on a	 separate  indented  line,  should  be
       specified  in  italics.	 Again,	 the  use of nonbreaking spaces may be
       appropriate if the expression is inlined with normal text.

       Any reference to the subject of the current manual page should be writ‐
       ten with the name in bold.  If the subject is a function (i.e., this is
       a Section 2 or 3 page), then the name should be followed by a  pair  of
       parentheses  in	Roman (normal) font.  For example, in the fcntl(2) man
       page, references to the subject	of  the	 page  would  be  written  as:
       fcntl().	 The preferred way to write this in the source file is:

	   .BR fcntl ()

       (Using  this format, rather than the use of "\fB...\fP()" makes it eas‐
       ier to write tools that parse man page source files.)

       Any reference to another man page should be written with	 the  name  in
       bold,  always  followed by the section number, formatted in Roman (nor‐
       mal) font, without any separating spaces (e.g.,	intro(2)).   The  pre‐
       ferred way to write this in the source file is:

	   .BR intro (2)

       (Including  the	section	 number	 in  cross  references lets tools like
       man2html(1) create properly hyperlinked pages.)

       Control characters should be written in bold face, with no quotes;  for
       example, ^X.

   Spelling
       Starting with release 2.59, man-pages follows American spelling conven‐
       tions (previously, there was a  random  mix  of	British	 and  American
       spellings);  please  write all new pages and patches according to these
       conventions.

       Aside from the well-known spelling differences, there are a  few	 other
       subtleties to watch for:

       *  American  English  tends  to	use  the  forms	 "backward", "upward",
	  "toward", and so on  rather  than  the  British  forms  "backwards",
	  "upwards", "towards", and so on.

   BSD version numbers
       The  classical  scheme for writing BSD version numbers is x.yBSD, where
       x.y is the version number (e.g., 4.2BSD).  Avoid forms such as BSD 4.3.

   Capitalization
       In subsection ("SS") headings, capitalize the first word in  the	 head‐
       ing,  but  otherwise  use  lowercase, except where English usage (e.g.,
       proper nouns) or programming language  requirements  (e.g.,  identifier
       names) dictate otherwise.  For example:

	   .SS Unicode under Linux

   Indentation of structure definitions, shell session logs, and so on
       When  structure definitions, shell session logs, and so on are included
       in running text, indent them by 4 spaces (i.e.,	a  block  enclosed  by
       .in +4n and .in).

   Preferred terms
       The  following  table  lists  some preferred terms to use in man pages,
       mainly to ensure consistency across pages.

       Term		    Avoid using		     Notes
       ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

       bit mask		    bitmask
       built-in		    builtin
       Epoch		    epoch		     For the UNIX  Epoch
						     (00:00:00,	  1  Jan
						     1970 UTC)
       filename		    file name
       filesystem	    file system
       hostname		    host name
       inode		    i-node
       lowercase	    lower case, lower-case
       pathname		    path name
       pseudoterminal	    pseudo-terminal
       privileged port	    reserved port,  system
			    port
       real-time	    realtime, real time
       run time		    runtime
       saved set-group-ID   saved  group ID, saved
			    set-GID
       saved set-user-ID    saved user	ID,  saved
			    set-UID
       set-group-ID	    set-GID, setgid
       set-user-ID	    set-UID, setuid
       superuser	    super user, super-user
       superblock	    super   block,  super-
			    block
       timestamp	    time stamp
       timezone		    time zone
       uppercase	    upper case, upper-case
       usable		    useable
       user space	    userspace
       username		    user name
       zeros		    zeroes

       See also the discussion Hyphenation of attributive compounds below.

   Terms to avoid
       The following table lists some terms to avoid using in man pages, along
       with  some  suggested alternatives, mainly to ensure consistency across
       pages.

       Avoid		 Use instead	       Notes
       ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

       32bit		 32-bit		       same   for   8-bit,
					       16-bit, etc.

       current process	 calling process       A   common  mistake
					       made by kernel pro‐
					       grammers when writ‐
					       ing man pages
       manpage		 man  page,   manual
			 page
       minus infinity	 negative infinity
       non-root		 unprivileged user
       non-superuser	 unprivileged user
       nonprivileged	 unprivileged
       OS		 operating system
       plus infinity	 positive infinity
       pty		 pseudoterminal
       tty		 terminal
       Unices		 UNIX systems
       Unixes		 UNIX systems

   Trademarks
       Use  the	 correct spelling and case for trademarks.  The following is a
       list of the correct spellings of various relevant trademarks  that  are
       sometimes misspelled:

	    DG/UX
	    HP-UX
	    UNIX
	    UnixWare

   NULL, NUL, null pointer, and null character
       A  null	pointer	 is  a pointer that points to nothing, and is normally
       indicated by the constant NULL.	On the other hand,  NUL	 is  the  null
       byte,  a byte with the value 0, represented in C via the character con‐
       stant '\0'.

       The preferred term for the pointer is "null pointer" or simply  "NULL";
       avoid writing "NULL pointer".

       The  preferred  term for the byte is "null byte".  Avoid writing "NUL",
       since it is too easily confused with  "NULL".   Avoid  also  the	 terms
       "zero  byte" and "null character".  The byte that terminates a C string
       should be described as "the terminating	null  byte";  strings  may  be
       described as "null-terminated", but avoid the use of "NUL-terminated".

   Hyperlinks
       For  hyperlinks,	 use  the .UR/.UE macro pair (see groff_man(7)).  This
       produces proper hyperlinks that can be used in a web browser, when ren‐
       dering a page with, say:

	    BROWSER=firefox man -H pagename

   Use of e.g., i.e., etc., a.k.a., and similar
       In  general,  the  use of abbreviations such as "e.g.", "i.e.", "etc.",
       "a.k.a."	 should be avoided, in favor of suitable full  wordings	 ("for
       example", "that is", "and so on", "also known as").

       The  only  place where such abbreviations may be acceptable is in short
       parenthetical asides (e.g., like this one).

       Always include periods in such abbreviations, as shown here.  In	 addi‐
       tion, "e.g." and "i.e." should always be followed by a comma.

   Em-dashes
       The  way	 to  write  an em-dash—the glyph that appears at either end of
       this subphrase—in *roff is with the macro "\(em".  (On an ASCII	termi‐
       nal,  an	 em-dash  typically renders as two hyphens, but in other typo‐
       graphical contexts it renders as a long	dash.)	 Em-dashes  should  be
       written without surrounding spaces.

   Hyphenation of attributive compounds
       Compound	 terms	should be hyphenated when used attributively (i.e., to
       qualify a following noun). Some examples:

	   32-bit value
	   command-line argument
	   floating-point number
	   run-time check
	   user-space function
	   wide-character string

   Hyphenation with multi, non, pre, re, sub, and so on
       The general tendency in modern English is not to hyphenate  after  pre‐
       fixes  such  as	"multi", "non", "pre", "re", "sub", and so on.	Manual
       pages should generally follow this rule when these prefixes are used in
       natural English constructions with simple suffixes.  The following list
       gives some examples of the preferred forms:

	   interprocess
	   multithreaded
	   multiprocess
	   nonblocking
	   nondefault
	   nonempty
	   noninteractive
	   nonnegative
	   nonportable
	   nonzero
	   preallocated
	   precreate
	   prerecorded
	   reestablished
	   reinitialize
	   rearm
	   reread
	   subcomponent
	   subdirectory
	   subsystem

       Hyphens should be retained when the prefixes are	 used  in  nonstandard
       English	words,	with  trademarks,  proper nouns, acronyms, or compound
       terms.  Some examples:

	   non-ASCII
	   non-English
	   non-NULL
	   non-real-time

       Finally, note that "re-create" and "recreate" are two different	verbs,
       and the former is probably what you want.

   Real minus character
       Where a real minus character is required (e.g., for numbers such as -1,
       or when writing options that have a leading dash, such  as  in  ls -l),
       use the following form in the man page source:

	   \-

       This guideline applies also to code examples.

   Character constants
       To  produce single quotes that render well in both ASCII and UTF-8, use
       the following form for character constants in the man page source:

	   \(aqC\(aq

       where C is the quoted character.	 This guideline applies also to	 char‐
       acter constants used in code examples.

   Example programs and shell sessions
       Manual  pages  may  include example programs demonstrating how to use a
       system call or library function.	 However, note the following:

       *  Example programs should be written in C.

       *  An example program is necessary and useful only if  it  demonstrates
	  something  beyond  what can easily be provided in a textual descrip‐
	  tion of the interface.  An example program that does	nothing	 other
	  than call an interface usually serves little purpose.

       *  Example  programs  should  be fairly short (preferably less than 100
	  lines; ideally less than 50 lines).

       *  Example programs should do error checking  after  system  calls  and
	  library function calls.

       *  Example  programs  should  be complete, and compile without warnings
	  when compiled with cc -Wall.

       *  Where possible and appropriate, example programs should allow exper‐
	  imentation,  by varying their behavior based on inputs (ideally from
	  command-line arguments, or alternatively, via input read by the pro‐
	  gram).

       *  Example  programs  should  be	 laid  out  according to Kernighan and
	  Ritchie style, with 4-space indents.	(Avoid the use of TAB  charac‐
	  ters in source code!)

       *  For  consistency, all example programs should terminate using either
	  of:

	       exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
	       exit(EXIT_FAILURE);

	  Avoid using the following forms to terminate a program:

	      exit(0);
	      exit(1);
	      return n;

       *  If there is extensive explanatory text  before  the  program	source
	  code,	 mark  off  the source code with a susbsection heading Program
	  source, as in:

	      .SS Program source

	  Always do this if the explanatory text includes a shell session log.

       If you include a shell session log demonstrating the use of  a  program
       or other system feature:

       *  Place the session log above the source code listing

       *  Indent the session log by four spaces.

       *  Boldface the user input text, to distinguish it from output produced
	  by the system.

       For some examples of  what  example  programs  should  look  like,  see
       wait(2) and pipe(2).

EXAMPLE
       For canonical examples of how man pages in the man-pages package should
       look, see pipe(2) and fcntl(2).

SEE ALSO
       man(1), man2html(1), groff(7), groff_man(7), man(7), mdoc(7)

COLOPHON
       This page is part of release 3.65 of the Linux  man-pages  project.   A
       description  of	the project, and information about reporting bugs, can
       be found at http://www.kernel.org/doc/man-pages/.

Linux				  2014-03-16			  MAN-PAGES(7)
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