gitcore-tutorial man page on Hurd

Man page or keyword search:  
man Server   6387 pages
apropos Keyword Search (all sections)
Output format
Hurd logo
[printable version]

GITCORE-TUTORIAL(7)		  Git Manual		   GITCORE-TUTORIAL(7)

NAME
       gitcore-tutorial - A Git core tutorial for developers

SYNOPSIS
       git *

DESCRIPTION
       This tutorial explains how to use the "core" Git commands to set up and
       work with a Git repository.

       If you just need to use Git as a revision control system you may prefer
       to start with "A Tutorial Introduction to Git" (gittutorial(7)) or the
       Git User Manual[1].

       However, an understanding of these low-level tools can be helpful if
       you want to understand Git’s internals.

       The core Git is often called "plumbing", with the prettier user
       interfaces on top of it called "porcelain". You may not want to use the
       plumbing directly very often, but it can be good to know what the
       plumbing does for when the porcelain isn’t flushing.

       Back when this document was originally written, many porcelain commands
       were shell scripts. For simplicity, it still uses them as examples to
       illustrate how plumbing is fit together to form the porcelain commands.
       The source tree includes some of these scripts in contrib/examples/ for
       reference. Although these are not implemented as shell scripts anymore,
       the description of what the plumbing layer commands do is still valid.

	   Note
	   Deeper technical details are often marked as Notes, which you can
	   skip on your first reading.

CREATING A GIT REPOSITORY
       Creating a new Git repository couldn’t be easier: all Git repositories
       start out empty, and the only thing you need to do is find yourself a
       subdirectory that you want to use as a working tree - either an empty
       one for a totally new project, or an existing working tree that you
       want to import into Git.

       For our first example, we’re going to start a totally new repository
       from scratch, with no pre-existing files, and we’ll call it
       git-tutorial. To start up, create a subdirectory for it, change into
       that subdirectory, and initialize the Git infrastructure with git init:

	   $ mkdir git-tutorial
	   $ cd git-tutorial
	   $ git init

       to which Git will reply

	   Initialized empty Git repository in .git/

       which is just Git’s way of saying that you haven’t been doing anything
       strange, and that it will have created a local .git directory setup for
       your new project. You will now have a .git directory, and you can
       inspect that with ls. For your new empty project, it should show you
       three entries, among other things:

       ·   a file called HEAD, that has ref: refs/heads/master in it. This is
	   similar to a symbolic link and points at refs/heads/master relative
	   to the HEAD file.

	   Don’t worry about the fact that the file that the HEAD link points
	   to doesn’t even exist yet — you haven’t created the commit that
	   will start your HEAD development branch yet.

       ·   a subdirectory called objects, which will contain all the objects
	   of your project. You should never have any real reason to look at
	   the objects directly, but you might want to know that these objects
	   are what contains all the real data in your repository.

       ·   a subdirectory called refs, which contains references to objects.

       In particular, the refs subdirectory will contain two other
       subdirectories, named heads and tags respectively. They do exactly what
       their names imply: they contain references to any number of different
       heads of development (aka branches), and to any tags that you have
       created to name specific versions in your repository.

       One note: the special master head is the default branch, which is why
       the .git/HEAD file was created points to it even if it doesn’t yet
       exist. Basically, the HEAD link is supposed to always point to the
       branch you are working on right now, and you always start out expecting
       to work on the master branch.

       However, this is only a convention, and you can name your branches
       anything you want, and don’t have to ever even have a master branch. A
       number of the Git tools will assume that .git/HEAD is valid, though.

	   Note
	   An object is identified by its 160-bit SHA-1 hash, aka object name,
	   and a reference to an object is always the 40-byte hex
	   representation of that SHA-1 name. The files in the refs
	   subdirectory are expected to contain these hex references (usually
	   with a final \n at the end), and you should thus expect to see a
	   number of 41-byte files containing these references in these refs
	   subdirectories when you actually start populating your tree.

	   Note
	   An advanced user may want to take a look at gitrepository-layout(5)
	   after finishing this tutorial.

       You have now created your first Git repository. Of course, since it’s
       empty, that’s not very useful, so let’s start populating it with data.

POPULATING A GIT REPOSITORY
       We’ll keep this simple and stupid, so we’ll start off with populating a
       few trivial files just to get a feel for it.

       Start off with just creating any random files that you want to maintain
       in your Git repository. We’ll start off with a few bad examples, just
       to get a feel for how this works:

	   $ echo "Hello World" >hello
	   $ echo "Silly example" >example

       you have now created two files in your working tree (aka working
       directory), but to actually check in your hard work, you will have to
       go through two steps:

       ·   fill in the index file (aka cache) with the information about your
	   working tree state.

       ·   commit that index file as an object.

       The first step is trivial: when you want to tell Git about any changes
       to your working tree, you use the git update-index program. That
       program normally just takes a list of filenames you want to update, but
       to avoid trivial mistakes, it refuses to add new entries to the index
       (or remove existing ones) unless you explicitly tell it that you’re
       adding a new entry with the --add flag (or removing an entry with the
       --remove) flag.

       So to populate the index with the two files you just created, you can
       do

	   $ git update-index --add hello example

       and you have now told Git to track those two files.

       In fact, as you did that, if you now look into your object directory,
       you’ll notice that Git will have added two new objects to the object
       database. If you did exactly the steps above, you should now be able to
       do

	   $ ls .git/objects/??/*

       and see two files:

	   .git/objects/55/7db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238
	   .git/objects/f2/4c74a2e500f5ee1332c86b94199f52b1d1d962

       which correspond with the objects with names of 557db... and f24c7...
       respectively.

       If you want to, you can use git cat-file to look at those objects, but
       you’ll have to use the object name, not the filename of the object:

	   $ git cat-file -t 557db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238

       where the -t tells git cat-file to tell you what the "type" of the
       object is. Git will tell you that you have a "blob" object (i.e., just
       a regular file), and you can see the contents with

	   $ git cat-file blob 557db03

       which will print out "Hello World". The object 557db03 is nothing more
       than the contents of your file hello.

	   Note
	   Don’t confuse that object with the file hello itself. The object is
	   literally just those specific contents of the file, and however
	   much you later change the contents in file hello, the object we
	   just looked at will never change. Objects are immutable.

	   Note
	   The second example demonstrates that you can abbreviate the object
	   name to only the first several hexadecimal digits in most places.

       Anyway, as we mentioned previously, you normally never actually take a
       look at the objects themselves, and typing long 40-character hex names
       is not something you’d normally want to do. The above digression was
       just to show that git update-index did something magical, and actually
       saved away the contents of your files into the Git object database.

       Updating the index did something else too: it created a .git/index
       file. This is the index that describes your current working tree, and
       something you should be very aware of. Again, you normally never worry
       about the index file itself, but you should be aware of the fact that
       you have not actually really "checked in" your files into Git so far,
       you’ve only told Git about them.

       However, since Git knows about them, you can now start using some of
       the most basic Git commands to manipulate the files or look at their
       status.

       In particular, let’s not even check in the two files into Git yet,
       we’ll start off by adding another line to hello first:

	   $ echo "It's a new day for git" >>hello

       and you can now, since you told Git about the previous state of hello,
       ask Git what has changed in the tree compared to your old index, using
       the git diff-files command:

	   $ git diff-files

       Oops. That wasn’t very readable. It just spit out its own internal
       version of a diff, but that internal version really just tells you that
       it has noticed that "hello" has been modified, and that the old object
       contents it had have been replaced with something else.

       To make it readable, we can tell git diff-files to output the
       differences as a patch, using the -p flag:

	   $ git diff-files -p
	   diff --git a/hello b/hello
	   index 557db03..263414f 100644
	   --- a/hello
	   +++ b/hello
	   @@ -1 +1,2 @@
	    Hello World
	   +It's a new day for git

       i.e. the diff of the change we caused by adding another line to hello.

       In other words, git diff-files always shows us the difference between
       what is recorded in the index, and what is currently in the working
       tree. That’s very useful.

       A common shorthand for git diff-files -p is to just write git diff,
       which will do the same thing.

	   $ git diff
	   diff --git a/hello b/hello
	   index 557db03..263414f 100644
	   --- a/hello
	   +++ b/hello
	   @@ -1 +1,2 @@
	    Hello World
	   +It's a new day for git

COMMITTING GIT STATE
       Now, we want to go to the next stage in Git, which is to take the files
       that Git knows about in the index, and commit them as a real tree. We
       do that in two phases: creating a tree object, and committing that tree
       object as a commit object together with an explanation of what the tree
       was all about, along with information of how we came to that state.

       Creating a tree object is trivial, and is done with git write-tree.
       There are no options or other input: git write-tree will take the
       current index state, and write an object that describes that whole
       index. In other words, we’re now tying together all the different
       filenames with their contents (and their permissions), and we’re
       creating the equivalent of a Git "directory" object:

	   $ git write-tree

       and this will just output the name of the resulting tree, in this case
       (if you have done exactly as I’ve described) it should be

	   8988da15d077d4829fc51d8544c097def6644dbb

       which is another incomprehensible object name. Again, if you want to,
       you can use git cat-file -t 8988d... to see that this time the object
       is not a "blob" object, but a "tree" object (you can also use git
       cat-file to actually output the raw object contents, but you’ll see
       mainly a binary mess, so that’s less interesting).

       However — normally you’d never use git write-tree on its own, because
       normally you always commit a tree into a commit object using the git
       commit-tree command. In fact, it’s easier to not actually use git
       write-tree on its own at all, but to just pass its result in as an
       argument to git commit-tree.

       git commit-tree normally takes several arguments — it wants to know
       what the parent of a commit was, but since this is the first commit
       ever in this new repository, and it has no parents, we only need to
       pass in the object name of the tree. However, git commit-tree also
       wants to get a commit message on its standard input, and it will write
       out the resulting object name for the commit to its standard output.

       And this is where we create the .git/refs/heads/master file which is
       pointed at by HEAD. This file is supposed to contain the reference to
       the top-of-tree of the master branch, and since that’s exactly what git
       commit-tree spits out, we can do this all with a sequence of simple
       shell commands:

	   $ tree=$(git write-tree)
	   $ commit=$(echo 'Initial commit' | git commit-tree $tree)
	   $ git update-ref HEAD $commit

       In this case this creates a totally new commit that is not related to
       anything else. Normally you do this only once for a project ever, and
       all later commits will be parented on top of an earlier commit.

       Again, normally you’d never actually do this by hand. There is a
       helpful script called git commit that will do all of this for you. So
       you could have just written git commit instead, and it would have done
       the above magic scripting for you.

MAKING A CHANGE
       Remember how we did the git update-index on file hello and then we
       changed hello afterward, and could compare the new state of hello with
       the state we saved in the index file?

       Further, remember how I said that git write-tree writes the contents of
       the index file to the tree, and thus what we just committed was in fact
       the original contents of the file hello, not the new ones. We did that
       on purpose, to show the difference between the index state, and the
       state in the working tree, and how they don’t have to match, even when
       we commit things.

       As before, if we do git diff-files -p in our git-tutorial project,
       we’ll still see the same difference we saw last time: the index file
       hasn’t changed by the act of committing anything. However, now that we
       have committed something, we can also learn to use a new command: git
       diff-index.

       Unlike git diff-files, which showed the difference between the index
       file and the working tree, git diff-index shows the differences between
       a committed tree and either the index file or the working tree. In
       other words, git diff-index wants a tree to be diffed against, and
       before we did the commit, we couldn’t do that, because we didn’t have
       anything to diff against.

       But now we can do

	   $ git diff-index -p HEAD

       (where -p has the same meaning as it did in git diff-files), and it
       will show us the same difference, but for a totally different reason.
       Now we’re comparing the working tree not against the index file, but
       against the tree we just wrote. It just so happens that those two are
       obviously the same, so we get the same result.

       Again, because this is a common operation, you can also just shorthand
       it with

	   $ git diff HEAD

       which ends up doing the above for you.

       In other words, git diff-index normally compares a tree against the
       working tree, but when given the --cached flag, it is told to instead
       compare against just the index cache contents, and ignore the current
       working tree state entirely. Since we just wrote the index file to
       HEAD, doing git diff-index --cached -p HEAD should thus return an empty
       set of differences, and that’s exactly what it does.

	   Note
	   git diff-index really always uses the index for its comparisons,
	   and saying that it compares a tree against the working tree is thus
	   not strictly accurate. In particular, the list of files to compare
	   (the "meta-data") always comes from the index file, regardless of
	   whether the --cached flag is used or not. The --cached flag really
	   only determines whether the file contents to be compared come from
	   the working tree or not.

	   This is not hard to understand, as soon as you realize that Git
	   simply never knows (or cares) about files that it is not told about
	   explicitly. Git will never go looking for files to compare, it
	   expects you to tell it what the files are, and that’s what the
	   index is there for.

       However, our next step is to commit the change we did, and again, to
       understand what’s going on, keep in mind the difference between
       "working tree contents", "index file" and "committed tree". We have
       changes in the working tree that we want to commit, and we always have
       to work through the index file, so the first thing we need to do is to
       update the index cache:

	   $ git update-index hello

       (note how we didn’t need the --add flag this time, since Git knew about
       the file already).

       Note what happens to the different git diff-* versions here. After
       we’ve updated hello in the index, git diff-files -p now shows no
       differences, but git diff-index -p HEAD still does show that the
       current state is different from the state we committed. In fact, now
       git diff-index shows the same difference whether we use the --cached
       flag or not, since now the index is coherent with the working tree.

       Now, since we’ve updated hello in the index, we can commit the new
       version. We could do it by writing the tree by hand again, and
       committing the tree (this time we’d have to use the -p HEAD flag to
       tell commit that the HEAD was the parent of the new commit, and that
       this wasn’t an initial commit any more), but you’ve done that once
       already, so let’s just use the helpful script this time:

	   $ git commit

       which starts an editor for you to write the commit message and tells
       you a bit about what you have done.

       Write whatever message you want, and all the lines that start with #
       will be pruned out, and the rest will be used as the commit message for
       the change. If you decide you don’t want to commit anything after all
       at this point (you can continue to edit things and update the index),
       you can just leave an empty message. Otherwise git commit will commit
       the change for you.

       You’ve now made your first real Git commit. And if you’re interested in
       looking at what git commit really does, feel free to investigate: it’s
       a few very simple shell scripts to generate the helpful (?) commit
       message headers, and a few one-liners that actually do the commit
       itself (git commit).

INSPECTING CHANGES
       While creating changes is useful, it’s even more useful if you can tell
       later what changed. The most useful command for this is another of the
       diff family, namely git diff-tree.

       git diff-tree can be given two arbitrary trees, and it will tell you
       the differences between them. Perhaps even more commonly, though, you
       can give it just a single commit object, and it will figure out the
       parent of that commit itself, and show the difference directly. Thus,
       to get the same diff that we’ve already seen several times, we can now
       do

	   $ git diff-tree -p HEAD

       (again, -p means to show the difference as a human-readable patch), and
       it will show what the last commit (in HEAD) actually changed.

	   Note
	   Here is an ASCII art by Jon Loeliger that illustrates how various
	   diff-* commands compare things.

			   diff-tree
			    +----+
			    |	 |
			    |	 |
			    V	 V
			 +-----------+
			 | Object DB |
			 |  Backing  |
			 |   Store   |
			 +-----------+
			   ^	^
			   |	|
			   |	|  diff-index --cached
			   |	|
	       diff-index  |	V
			   |  +-----------+
			   |  |	  Index	  |
			   |  |	 "cache"  |
			   |  +-----------+
			   |	^
			   |	|
			   |	|  diff-files
			   |	|
			   V	V
			 +-----------+
			 |  Working  |
			 | Directory |
			 +-----------+

       More interestingly, you can also give git diff-tree the --pretty flag,
       which tells it to also show the commit message and author and date of
       the commit, and you can tell it to show a whole series of diffs.
       Alternatively, you can tell it to be "silent", and not show the diffs
       at all, but just show the actual commit message.

       In fact, together with the git rev-list program (which generates a list
       of revisions), git diff-tree ends up being a veritable fount of
       changes. You can emulate git log, git log -p, etc. with a trivial
       script that pipes the output of git rev-list to git diff-tree --stdin,
       which was exactly how early versions of git log were implemented.

TAGGING A VERSION
       In Git, there are two kinds of tags, a "light" one, and an "annotated
       tag".

       A "light" tag is technically nothing more than a branch, except we put
       it in the .git/refs/tags/ subdirectory instead of calling it a head. So
       the simplest form of tag involves nothing more than

	   $ git tag my-first-tag

       which just writes the current HEAD into the .git/refs/tags/my-first-tag
       file, after which point you can then use this symbolic name for that
       particular state. You can, for example, do

	   $ git diff my-first-tag

       to diff your current state against that tag which at this point will
       obviously be an empty diff, but if you continue to develop and commit
       stuff, you can use your tag as an "anchor-point" to see what has
       changed since you tagged it.

       An "annotated tag" is actually a real Git object, and contains not only
       a pointer to the state you want to tag, but also a small tag name and
       message, along with optionally a PGP signature that says that yes, you
       really did that tag. You create these annotated tags with either the -a
       or -s flag to git tag:

	   $ git tag -s <tagname>

       which will sign the current HEAD (but you can also give it another
       argument that specifies the thing to tag, e.g., you could have tagged
       the current mybranch point by using git tag <tagname> mybranch).

       You normally only do signed tags for major releases or things like
       that, while the light-weight tags are useful for any marking you want
       to do — any time you decide that you want to remember a certain point,
       just create a private tag for it, and you have a nice symbolic name for
       the state at that point.

COPYING REPOSITORIES
       Git repositories are normally totally self-sufficient and relocatable.
       Unlike CVS, for example, there is no separate notion of "repository"
       and "working tree". A Git repository normally is the working tree, with
       the local Git information hidden in the .git subdirectory. There is
       nothing else. What you see is what you got.

	   Note
	   You can tell Git to split the Git internal information from the
	   directory that it tracks, but we’ll ignore that for now: it’s not
	   how normal projects work, and it’s really only meant for special
	   uses. So the mental model of "the Git information is always tied
	   directly to the working tree that it describes" may not be
	   technically 100% accurate, but it’s a good model for all normal
	   use.

       This has two implications:

       ·   if you grow bored with the tutorial repository you created (or
	   you’ve made a mistake and want to start all over), you can just do
	   simple

	       $ rm -rf git-tutorial

	   and it will be gone. There’s no external repository, and there’s no
	   history outside the project you created.

       ·   if you want to move or duplicate a Git repository, you can do so.
	   There is git clone command, but if all you want to do is just to
	   create a copy of your repository (with all the full history that
	   went along with it), you can do so with a regular cp -a
	   git-tutorial new-git-tutorial.

	   Note that when you’ve moved or copied a Git repository, your Git
	   index file (which caches various information, notably some of the
	   "stat" information for the files involved) will likely need to be
	   refreshed. So after you do a cp -a to create a new copy, you’ll
	   want to do

	       $ git update-index --refresh

	   in the new repository to make sure that the index file is
	   up-to-date.

       Note that the second point is true even across machines. You can
       duplicate a remote Git repository with any regular copy mechanism, be
       it scp, rsync or wget.

       When copying a remote repository, you’ll want to at a minimum update
       the index cache when you do this, and especially with other peoples'
       repositories you often want to make sure that the index cache is in
       some known state (you don’t know what they’ve done and not yet checked
       in), so usually you’ll precede the git update-index with a

	   $ git read-tree --reset HEAD
	   $ git update-index --refresh

       which will force a total index re-build from the tree pointed to by
       HEAD. It resets the index contents to HEAD, and then the git
       update-index makes sure to match up all index entries with the
       checked-out files. If the original repository had uncommitted changes
       in its working tree, git update-index --refresh notices them and tells
       you they need to be updated.

       The above can also be written as simply

	   $ git reset

       and in fact a lot of the common Git command combinations can be
       scripted with the git xyz interfaces. You can learn things by just
       looking at what the various git scripts do. For example, git reset used
       to be the above two lines implemented in git reset, but some things
       like git status and git commit are slightly more complex scripts around
       the basic Git commands.

       Many (most?) public remote repositories will not contain any of the
       checked out files or even an index file, and will only contain the
       actual core Git files. Such a repository usually doesn’t even have the
       .git subdirectory, but has all the Git files directly in the
       repository.

       To create your own local live copy of such a "raw" Git repository,
       you’d first create your own subdirectory for the project, and then copy
       the raw repository contents into the .git directory. For example, to
       create your own copy of the Git repository, you’d do the following

	   $ mkdir my-git
	   $ cd my-git
	   $ rsync -rL rsync://rsync.kernel.org/pub/scm/git/git.git/ .git

       followed by

	   $ git read-tree HEAD

       to populate the index. However, now you have populated the index, and
       you have all the Git internal files, but you will notice that you don’t
       actually have any of the working tree files to work on. To get those,
       you’d check them out with

	   $ git checkout-index -u -a

       where the -u flag means that you want the checkout to keep the index
       up-to-date (so that you don’t have to refresh it afterward), and the -a
       flag means "check out all files" (if you have a stale copy or an older
       version of a checked out tree you may also need to add the -f flag
       first, to tell git checkout-index to force overwriting of any old
       files).

       Again, this can all be simplified with

	   $ git clone rsync://rsync.kernel.org/pub/scm/git/git.git/ my-git
	   $ cd my-git
	   $ git checkout

       which will end up doing all of the above for you.

       You have now successfully copied somebody else’s (mine) remote
       repository, and checked it out.

CREATING A NEW BRANCH
       Branches in Git are really nothing more than pointers into the Git
       object database from within the .git/refs/ subdirectory, and as we
       already discussed, the HEAD branch is nothing but a symlink to one of
       these object pointers.

       You can at any time create a new branch by just picking an arbitrary
       point in the project history, and just writing the SHA-1 name of that
       object into a file under .git/refs/heads/. You can use any filename you
       want (and indeed, subdirectories), but the convention is that the
       "normal" branch is called master. That’s just a convention, though, and
       nothing enforces it.

       To show that as an example, let’s go back to the git-tutorial
       repository we used earlier, and create a branch in it. You do that by
       simply just saying that you want to check out a new branch:

	   $ git checkout -b mybranch

       will create a new branch based at the current HEAD position, and switch
       to it.

	   Note
	   If you make the decision to start your new branch at some other
	   point in the history than the current HEAD, you can do so by just
	   telling git checkout what the base of the checkout would be. In
	   other words, if you have an earlier tag or branch, you’d just do

	       $ git checkout -b mybranch earlier-commit

	   and it would create the new branch mybranch at the earlier commit,
	   and check out the state at that time.

       You can always just jump back to your original master branch by doing

	   $ git checkout master

       (or any other branch-name, for that matter) and if you forget which
       branch you happen to be on, a simple

	   $ cat .git/HEAD

       will tell you where it’s pointing. To get the list of branches you
       have, you can say

	   $ git branch

       which used to be nothing more than a simple script around ls
       .git/refs/heads. There will be an asterisk in front of the branch you
       are currently on.

       Sometimes you may wish to create a new branch without actually checking
       it out and switching to it. If so, just use the command

	   $ git branch <branchname> [startingpoint]

       which will simply create the branch, but will not do anything further.
       You can then later — once you decide that you want to actually develop
       on that branch — switch to that branch with a regular git checkout with
       the branchname as the argument.

MERGING TWO BRANCHES
       One of the ideas of having a branch is that you do some (possibly
       experimental) work in it, and eventually merge it back to the main
       branch. So assuming you created the above mybranch that started out
       being the same as the original master branch, let’s make sure we’re in
       that branch, and do some work there.

	   $ git checkout mybranch
	   $ echo "Work, work, work" >>hello
	   $ git commit -m "Some work." -i hello

       Here, we just added another line to hello, and we used a shorthand for
       doing both git update-index hello and git commit by just giving the
       filename directly to git commit, with an -i flag (it tells Git to
       include that file in addition to what you have done to the index file
       so far when making the commit). The -m flag is to give the commit log
       message from the command line.

       Now, to make it a bit more interesting, let’s assume that somebody else
       does some work in the original branch, and simulate that by going back
       to the master branch, and editing the same file differently there:

	   $ git checkout master

       Here, take a moment to look at the contents of hello, and notice how
       they don’t contain the work we just did in mybranch — because that work
       hasn’t happened in the master branch at all. Then do

	   $ echo "Play, play, play" >>hello
	   $ echo "Lots of fun" >>example
	   $ git commit -m "Some fun." -i hello example

       since the master branch is obviously in a much better mood.

       Now, you’ve got two branches, and you decide that you want to merge the
       work done. Before we do that, let’s introduce a cool graphical tool
       that helps you view what’s going on:

	   $ gitk --all

       will show you graphically both of your branches (that’s what the --all
       means: normally it will just show you your current HEAD) and their
       histories. You can also see exactly how they came to be from a common
       source.

       Anyway, let’s exit gitk (^Q or the File menu), and decide that we want
       to merge the work we did on the mybranch branch into the master branch
       (which is currently our HEAD too). To do that, there’s a nice script
       called git merge, which wants to know which branches you want to
       resolve and what the merge is all about:

	   $ git merge -m "Merge work in mybranch" mybranch

       where the first argument is going to be used as the commit message if
       the merge can be resolved automatically.

       Now, in this case we’ve intentionally created a situation where the
       merge will need to be fixed up by hand, though, so Git will do as much
       of it as it can automatically (which in this case is just merge the
       example file, which had no differences in the mybranch branch), and
       say:

		   Auto-merging hello
		   CONFLICT (content): Merge conflict in hello
		   Automatic merge failed; fix conflicts and then commit the result.

       It tells you that it did an "Automatic merge", which failed due to
       conflicts in hello.

       Not to worry. It left the (trivial) conflict in hello in the same form
       you should already be well used to if you’ve ever used CVS, so let’s
       just open hello in our editor (whatever that may be), and fix it up
       somehow. I’d suggest just making it so that hello contains all four
       lines:

	   Hello World
	   It's a new day for git
	   Play, play, play
	   Work, work, work

       and once you’re happy with your manual merge, just do a

	   $ git commit -i hello

       which will very loudly warn you that you’re now committing a merge
       (which is correct, so never mind), and you can write a small merge
       message about your adventures in git merge-land.

       After you’re done, start up gitk --all to see graphically what the
       history looks like. Notice that mybranch still exists, and you can
       switch to it, and continue to work with it if you want to. The mybranch
       branch will not contain the merge, but next time you merge it from the
       master branch, Git will know how you merged it, so you’ll not have to
       do that merge again.

       Another useful tool, especially if you do not always work in X-Window
       environment, is git show-branch.

	   $ git show-branch --topo-order --more=1 master mybranch
	   * [master] Merge work in mybranch
	    ! [mybranch] Some work.
	   --
	   -  [master] Merge work in mybranch
	   *+ [mybranch] Some work.
	   *  [master^] Some fun.

       The first two lines indicate that it is showing the two branches with
       the titles of their top-of-the-tree commits, you are currently on
       master branch (notice the asterisk * character), and the first column
       for the later output lines is used to show commits contained in the
       master branch, and the second column for the mybranch branch. Three
       commits are shown along with their titles. All of them have non blank
       characters in the first column (* shows an ordinary commit on the
       current branch, - is a merge commit), which means they are now part of
       the master branch. Only the "Some work" commit has the plus + character
       in the second column, because mybranch has not been merged to
       incorporate these commits from the master branch. The string inside
       brackets before the commit log message is a short name you can use to
       name the commit. In the above example, master and mybranch are branch
       heads. master^ is the first parent of master branch head. Please see
       gitrevisions(7) if you want to see more complex cases.

	   Note
	   Without the --more=1 option, git show-branch would not output the
	   [master^] commit, as [mybranch] commit is a common ancestor of both
	   master and mybranch tips. Please see git-show-branch(1) for
	   details.

	   Note
	   If there were more commits on the master branch after the merge,
	   the merge commit itself would not be shown by git show-branch by
	   default. You would need to provide --sparse option to make the
	   merge commit visible in this case.

       Now, let’s pretend you are the one who did all the work in mybranch,
       and the fruit of your hard work has finally been merged to the master
       branch. Let’s go back to mybranch, and run git merge to get the
       "upstream changes" back to your branch.

	   $ git checkout mybranch
	   $ git merge -m "Merge upstream changes." master

       This outputs something like this (the actual commit object names would
       be different)

	   Updating from ae3a2da... to a80b4aa....
	   Fast-forward (no commit created; -m option ignored)
	    example | 1 +
	    hello   | 1 +
	    2 files changed, 2 insertions(+)

       Because your branch did not contain anything more than what had already
       been merged into the master branch, the merge operation did not
       actually do a merge. Instead, it just updated the top of the tree of
       your branch to that of the master branch. This is often called
       fast-forward merge.

       You can run gitk --all again to see how the commit ancestry looks like,
       or run show-branch, which tells you this.

	   $ git show-branch master mybranch
	   ! [master] Merge work in mybranch
	    * [mybranch] Merge work in mybranch
	   --
	   -- [master] Merge work in mybranch

MERGING EXTERNAL WORK
       It’s usually much more common that you merge with somebody else than
       merging with your own branches, so it’s worth pointing out that Git
       makes that very easy too, and in fact, it’s not that different from
       doing a git merge. In fact, a remote merge ends up being nothing more
       than "fetch the work from a remote repository into a temporary tag"
       followed by a git merge.

       Fetching from a remote repository is done by, unsurprisingly, git
       fetch:

	   $ git fetch <remote-repository>

       One of the following transports can be used to name the repository to
       download from:

       Rsync
	   rsync://remote.machine/path/to/repo.git/

	   Rsync transport is usable for both uploading and downloading, but
	   is completely unaware of what git does, and can produce unexpected
	   results when you download from the public repository while the
	   repository owner is uploading into it via rsync transport. Most
	   notably, it could update the files under refs/ which holds the
	   object name of the topmost commits before uploading the files in
	   objects/ — the downloader would obtain head commit object name
	   while that object itself is still not available in the repository.
	   For this reason, it is considered deprecated.

       SSH
	   remote.machine:/path/to/repo.git/ or

	   ssh://remote.machine/path/to/repo.git/

	   This transport can be used for both uploading and downloading, and
	   requires you to have a log-in privilege over ssh to the remote
	   machine. It finds out the set of objects the other side lacks by
	   exchanging the head commits both ends have and transfers (close to)
	   minimum set of objects. It is by far the most efficient way to
	   exchange Git objects between repositories.

       Local directory
	   /path/to/repo.git/

	   This transport is the same as SSH transport but uses sh to run both
	   ends on the local machine instead of running other end on the
	   remote machine via ssh.

       Git Native
	   git://remote.machine/path/to/repo.git/

	   This transport was designed for anonymous downloading. Like SSH
	   transport, it finds out the set of objects the downstream side
	   lacks and transfers (close to) minimum set of objects.

       HTTP(S)
	   http://remote.machine/path/to/repo.git/

	   Downloader from http and https URL first obtains the topmost commit
	   object name from the remote site by looking at the specified
	   refname under repo.git/refs/ directory, and then tries to obtain
	   the commit object by downloading from repo.git/objects/xx/xxx...
	   using the object name of that commit object. Then it reads the
	   commit object to find out its parent commits and the associate tree
	   object; it repeats this process until it gets all the necessary
	   objects. Because of this behavior, they are sometimes also called
	   commit walkers.

	   The commit walkers are sometimes also called dumb transports,
	   because they do not require any Git aware smart server like Git
	   Native transport does. Any stock HTTP server that does not even
	   support directory index would suffice. But you must prepare your
	   repository with git update-server-info to help dumb transport
	   downloaders.

       Once you fetch from the remote repository, you merge that with your
       current branch.

       However — it’s such a common thing to fetch and then immediately merge,
       that it’s called git pull, and you can simply do

	   $ git pull <remote-repository>

       and optionally give a branch-name for the remote end as a second
       argument.

	   Note
	   You could do without using any branches at all, by keeping as many
	   local repositories as you would like to have branches, and merging
	   between them with git pull, just like you merge between branches.
	   The advantage of this approach is that it lets you keep a set of
	   files for each branch checked out and you may find it easier to
	   switch back and forth if you juggle multiple lines of development
	   simultaneously. Of course, you will pay the price of more disk
	   usage to hold multiple working trees, but disk space is cheap these
	   days.

       It is likely that you will be pulling from the same remote repository
       from time to time. As a short hand, you can store the remote repository
       URL in the local repository’s config file like this:

	   $ git config remote.linus.url http://www.kernel.org/pub/scm/git/git.git/

       and use the "linus" keyword with git pull instead of the full URL.

       Examples.

	1. git pull linus

	2. git pull linus tag v0.99.1

       the above are equivalent to:

	1. git pull http://www.kernel.org/pub/scm/git/git.git/ HEAD

	2. git pull http://www.kernel.org/pub/scm/git/git.git/ tag v0.99.1

HOW DOES THE MERGE WORK?
       We said this tutorial shows what plumbing does to help you cope with
       the porcelain that isn’t flushing, but we so far did not talk about how
       the merge really works. If you are following this tutorial the first
       time, I’d suggest to skip to "Publishing your work" section and come
       back here later.

       OK, still with me? To give us an example to look at, let’s go back to
       the earlier repository with "hello" and "example" file, and bring
       ourselves back to the pre-merge state:

	   $ git show-branch --more=2 master mybranch
	   ! [master] Merge work in mybranch
	    * [mybranch] Merge work in mybranch
	   --
	   -- [master] Merge work in mybranch
	   +* [master^2] Some work.
	   +* [master^] Some fun.

       Remember, before running git merge, our master head was at "Some fun."
       commit, while our mybranch head was at "Some work." commit.

	   $ git checkout mybranch
	   $ git reset --hard master^2
	   $ git checkout master
	   $ git reset --hard master^

       After rewinding, the commit structure should look like this:

	   $ git show-branch
	   * [master] Some fun.
	    ! [mybranch] Some work.
	   --
	   *  [master] Some fun.
	    + [mybranch] Some work.
	   *+ [master^] Initial commit

       Now we are ready to experiment with the merge by hand.

       git merge command, when merging two branches, uses 3-way merge
       algorithm. First, it finds the common ancestor between them. The
       command it uses is git merge-base:

	   $ mb=$(git merge-base HEAD mybranch)

       The command writes the commit object name of the common ancestor to the
       standard output, so we captured its output to a variable, because we
       will be using it in the next step. By the way, the common ancestor
       commit is the "Initial commit" commit in this case. You can tell it by:

	   $ git name-rev --name-only --tags $mb
	   my-first-tag

       After finding out a common ancestor commit, the second step is this:

	   $ git read-tree -m -u $mb HEAD mybranch

       This is the same git read-tree command we have already seen, but it
       takes three trees, unlike previous examples. This reads the contents of
       each tree into different stage in the index file (the first tree goes
       to stage 1, the second to stage 2, etc.). After reading three trees
       into three stages, the paths that are the same in all three stages are
       collapsed into stage 0. Also paths that are the same in two of three
       stages are collapsed into stage 0, taking the SHA-1 from either stage 2
       or stage 3, whichever is different from stage 1 (i.e. only one side
       changed from the common ancestor).

       After collapsing operation, paths that are different in three trees are
       left in non-zero stages. At this point, you can inspect the index file
       with this command:

	   $ git ls-files --stage
	   100644 7f8b141b65fdcee47321e399a2598a235a032422 0	   example
	   100644 557db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238 1	   hello
	   100644 ba42a2a96e3027f3333e13ede4ccf4498c3ae942 2	   hello
	   100644 cc44c73eb783565da5831b4d820c962954019b69 3	   hello

       In our example of only two files, we did not have unchanged files so
       only example resulted in collapsing. But in real-life large projects,
       when only a small number of files change in one commit, this collapsing
       tends to trivially merge most of the paths fairly quickly, leaving only
       a handful of real changes in non-zero stages.

       To look at only non-zero stages, use --unmerged flag:

	   $ git ls-files --unmerged
	   100644 557db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238 1	   hello
	   100644 ba42a2a96e3027f3333e13ede4ccf4498c3ae942 2	   hello
	   100644 cc44c73eb783565da5831b4d820c962954019b69 3	   hello

       The next step of merging is to merge these three versions of the file,
       using 3-way merge. This is done by giving git merge-one-file command as
       one of the arguments to git merge-index command:

	   $ git merge-index git-merge-one-file hello
	   Auto-merging hello
	   ERROR: Merge conflict in hello
	   fatal: merge program failed

       git merge-one-file script is called with parameters to describe those
       three versions, and is responsible to leave the merge results in the
       working tree. It is a fairly straightforward shell script, and
       eventually calls merge program from RCS suite to perform a file-level
       3-way merge. In this case, merge detects conflicts, and the merge
       result with conflict marks is left in the working tree.. This can be
       seen if you run ls-files --stage again at this point:

	   $ git ls-files --stage
	   100644 7f8b141b65fdcee47321e399a2598a235a032422 0	   example
	   100644 557db03de997c86a4a028e1ebd3a1ceb225be238 1	   hello
	   100644 ba42a2a96e3027f3333e13ede4ccf4498c3ae942 2	   hello
	   100644 cc44c73eb783565da5831b4d820c962954019b69 3	   hello

       This is the state of the index file and the working file after git
       merge returns control back to you, leaving the conflicting merge for
       you to resolve. Notice that the path hello is still unmerged, and what
       you see with git diff at this point is differences since stage 2 (i.e.
       your version).

PUBLISHING YOUR WORK
       So, we can use somebody else’s work from a remote repository, but how
       can you prepare a repository to let other people pull from it?

       You do your real work in your working tree that has your primary
       repository hanging under it as its .git subdirectory. You could make
       that repository accessible remotely and ask people to pull from it, but
       in practice that is not the way things are usually done. A recommended
       way is to have a public repository, make it reachable by other people,
       and when the changes you made in your primary working tree are in good
       shape, update the public repository from it. This is often called
       pushing.

	   Note
	   This public repository could further be mirrored, and that is how
	   Git repositories at kernel.org are managed.

       Publishing the changes from your local (private) repository to your
       remote (public) repository requires a write privilege on the remote
       machine. You need to have an SSH account there to run a single command,
       git-receive-pack.

       First, you need to create an empty repository on the remote machine
       that will house your public repository. This empty repository will be
       populated and be kept up-to-date by pushing into it later. Obviously,
       this repository creation needs to be done only once.

	   Note
	   git push uses a pair of commands, git send-pack on your local
	   machine, and git-receive-pack on the remote machine. The
	   communication between the two over the network internally uses an
	   SSH connection.

       Your private repository’s Git directory is usually .git, but your
       public repository is often named after the project name, i.e.
       <project>.git. Let’s create such a public repository for project
       my-git. After logging into the remote machine, create an empty
       directory:

	   $ mkdir my-git.git

       Then, make that directory into a Git repository by running git init,
       but this time, since its name is not the usual .git, we do things
       slightly differently:

	   $ GIT_DIR=my-git.git git init

       Make sure this directory is available for others you want your changes
       to be pulled via the transport of your choice. Also you need to make
       sure that you have the git-receive-pack program on the $PATH.

	   Note
	   Many installations of sshd do not invoke your shell as the login
	   shell when you directly run programs; what this means is that if
	   your login shell is bash, only .bashrc is read and not
	   .bash_profile. As a workaround, make sure .bashrc sets up $PATH so
	   that you can run git-receive-pack program.

	   Note
	   If you plan to publish this repository to be accessed over http,
	   you should do mv my-git.git/hooks/post-update.sample
	   my-git.git/hooks/post-update at this point. This makes sure that
	   every time you push into this repository, git update-server-info is
	   run.

       Your "public repository" is now ready to accept your changes. Come back
       to the machine you have your private repository. From there, run this
       command:

	   $ git push <public-host>:/path/to/my-git.git master

       This synchronizes your public repository to match the named branch head
       (i.e. master in this case) and objects reachable from them in your
       current repository.

       As a real example, this is how I update my public Git repository.
       Kernel.org mirror network takes care of the propagation to other
       publicly visible machines:

	   $ git push master.kernel.org:/pub/scm/git/git.git/

PACKING YOUR REPOSITORY
       Earlier, we saw that one file under .git/objects/??/ directory is
       stored for each Git object you create. This representation is efficient
       to create atomically and safely, but not so convenient to transport
       over the network. Since Git objects are immutable once they are
       created, there is a way to optimize the storage by "packing them
       together". The command

	   $ git repack

       will do it for you. If you followed the tutorial examples, you would
       have accumulated about 17 objects in .git/objects/??/ directories by
       now. git repack tells you how many objects it packed, and stores the
       packed file in .git/objects/pack directory.

	   Note
	   You will see two files, pack-*.pack and pack-*.idx, in
	   .git/objects/pack directory. They are closely related to each
	   other, and if you ever copy them by hand to a different repository
	   for whatever reason, you should make sure you copy them together.
	   The former holds all the data from the objects in the pack, and the
	   latter holds the index for random access.

       If you are paranoid, running git verify-pack command would detect if
       you have a corrupt pack, but do not worry too much. Our programs are
       always perfect ;-).

       Once you have packed objects, you do not need to leave the unpacked
       objects that are contained in the pack file anymore.

	   $ git prune-packed

       would remove them for you.

       You can try running find .git/objects -type f before and after you run
       git prune-packed if you are curious. Also git count-objects would tell
       you how many unpacked objects are in your repository and how much space
       they are consuming.

	   Note
	   git pull is slightly cumbersome for HTTP transport, as a packed
	   repository may contain relatively few objects in a relatively large
	   pack. If you expect many HTTP pulls from your public repository you
	   might want to repack & prune often, or never.

       If you run git repack again at this point, it will say "Nothing new to
       pack.". Once you continue your development and accumulate the changes,
       running git repack again will create a new pack, that contains objects
       created since you packed your repository the last time. We recommend
       that you pack your project soon after the initial import (unless you
       are starting your project from scratch), and then run git repack every
       once in a while, depending on how active your project is.

       When a repository is synchronized via git push and git pull objects
       packed in the source repository are usually stored unpacked in the
       destination, unless rsync transport is used. While this allows you to
       use different packing strategies on both ends, it also means you may
       need to repack both repositories every once in a while.

WORKING WITH OTHERS
       Although Git is a truly distributed system, it is often convenient to
       organize your project with an informal hierarchy of developers. Linux
       kernel development is run this way. There is a nice illustration (page
       17, "Merges to Mainline") in Randy Dunlap’s presentation[2].

       It should be stressed that this hierarchy is purely informal. There is
       nothing fundamental in Git that enforces the "chain of patch flow" this
       hierarchy implies. You do not have to pull from only one remote
       repository.

       A recommended workflow for a "project lead" goes like this:

	1. Prepare your primary repository on your local machine. Your work is
	   done there.

	2. Prepare a public repository accessible to others.

	   If other people are pulling from your repository over dumb
	   transport protocols (HTTP), you need to keep this repository dumb
	   transport friendly. After git init,
	   $GIT_DIR/hooks/post-update.sample copied from the standard
	   templates would contain a call to git update-server-info but you
	   need to manually enable the hook with mv post-update.sample
	   post-update. This makes sure git update-server-info keeps the
	   necessary files up-to-date.

	3. Push into the public repository from your primary repository.

	4. git repack the public repository. This establishes a big pack that
	   contains the initial set of objects as the baseline, and possibly
	   git prune if the transport used for pulling from your repository
	   supports packed repositories.

	5. Keep working in your primary repository. Your changes include
	   modifications of your own, patches you receive via e-mails, and
	   merges resulting from pulling the "public" repositories of your
	   "subsystem maintainers".

	   You can repack this private repository whenever you feel like.

	6. Push your changes to the public repository, and announce it to the
	   public.

	7. Every once in a while, git repack the public repository. Go back to
	   step 5. and continue working.

       A recommended work cycle for a "subsystem maintainer" who works on that
       project and has an own "public repository" goes like this:

	1. Prepare your work repository, by git clone the public repository of
	   the "project lead". The URL used for the initial cloning is stored
	   in the remote.origin.url configuration variable.

	2. Prepare a public repository accessible to others, just like the
	   "project lead" person does.

	3. Copy over the packed files from "project lead" public repository to
	   your public repository, unless the "project lead" repository lives
	   on the same machine as yours. In the latter case, you can use
	   objects/info/alternates file to point at the repository you are
	   borrowing from.

	4. Push into the public repository from your primary repository. Run
	   git repack, and possibly git prune if the transport used for
	   pulling from your repository supports packed repositories.

	5. Keep working in your primary repository. Your changes include
	   modifications of your own, patches you receive via e-mails, and
	   merges resulting from pulling the "public" repositories of your
	   "project lead" and possibly your "sub-subsystem maintainers".

	   You can repack this private repository whenever you feel like.

	6. Push your changes to your public repository, and ask your "project
	   lead" and possibly your "sub-subsystem maintainers" to pull from
	   it.

	7. Every once in a while, git repack the public repository. Go back to
	   step 5. and continue working.

       A recommended work cycle for an "individual developer" who does not
       have a "public" repository is somewhat different. It goes like this:

	1. Prepare your work repository, by git clone the public repository of
	   the "project lead" (or a "subsystem maintainer", if you work on a
	   subsystem). The URL used for the initial cloning is stored in the
	   remote.origin.url configuration variable.

	2. Do your work in your repository on master branch.

	3. Run git fetch origin from the public repository of your upstream
	   every once in a while. This does only the first half of git pull
	   but does not merge. The head of the public repository is stored in
	   .git/refs/remotes/origin/master.

	4. Use git cherry origin to see which ones of your patches were
	   accepted, and/or use git rebase origin to port your unmerged
	   changes forward to the updated upstream.

	5. Use git format-patch origin to prepare patches for e-mail
	   submission to your upstream and send it out. Go back to step 2. and
	   continue.

WORKING WITH OTHERS, SHARED REPOSITORY STYLE
       If you are coming from CVS background, the style of cooperation
       suggested in the previous section may be new to you. You do not have to
       worry. Git supports "shared public repository" style of cooperation you
       are probably more familiar with as well.

       See gitcvs-migration(7) for the details.

BUNDLING YOUR WORK TOGETHER
       It is likely that you will be working on more than one thing at a time.
       It is easy to manage those more-or-less independent tasks using
       branches with Git.

       We have already seen how branches work previously, with "fun and work"
       example using two branches. The idea is the same if there are more than
       two branches. Let’s say you started out from "master" head, and have
       some new code in the "master" branch, and two independent fixes in the
       "commit-fix" and "diff-fix" branches:

	   $ git show-branch
	   ! [commit-fix] Fix commit message normalization.
	    ! [diff-fix] Fix rename detection.
	     * [master] Release candidate #1
	   ---
	    +  [diff-fix] Fix rename detection.
	    +  [diff-fix~1] Better common substring algorithm.
	   +   [commit-fix] Fix commit message normalization.
	     * [master] Release candidate #1
	   ++* [diff-fix~2] Pretty-print messages.

       Both fixes are tested well, and at this point, you want to merge in
       both of them. You could merge in diff-fix first and then commit-fix
       next, like this:

	   $ git merge -m "Merge fix in diff-fix" diff-fix
	   $ git merge -m "Merge fix in commit-fix" commit-fix

       Which would result in:

	   $ git show-branch
	   ! [commit-fix] Fix commit message normalization.
	    ! [diff-fix] Fix rename detection.
	     * [master] Merge fix in commit-fix
	   ---
	     - [master] Merge fix in commit-fix
	   + * [commit-fix] Fix commit message normalization.
	     - [master~1] Merge fix in diff-fix
	    +* [diff-fix] Fix rename detection.
	    +* [diff-fix~1] Better common substring algorithm.
	     * [master~2] Release candidate #1
	   ++* [master~3] Pretty-print messages.

       However, there is no particular reason to merge in one branch first and
       the other next, when what you have are a set of truly independent
       changes (if the order mattered, then they are not independent by
       definition). You could instead merge those two branches into the
       current branch at once. First let’s undo what we just did and start
       over. We would want to get the master branch before these two merges by
       resetting it to master~2:

	   $ git reset --hard master~2

       You can make sure git show-branch matches the state before those two
       git merge you just did. Then, instead of running two git merge commands
       in a row, you would merge these two branch heads (this is known as
       making an Octopus):

	   $ git merge commit-fix diff-fix
	   $ git show-branch
	   ! [commit-fix] Fix commit message normalization.
	    ! [diff-fix] Fix rename detection.
	     * [master] Octopus merge of branches 'diff-fix' and 'commit-fix'
	   ---
	     - [master] Octopus merge of branches 'diff-fix' and 'commit-fix'
	   + * [commit-fix] Fix commit message normalization.
	    +* [diff-fix] Fix rename detection.
	    +* [diff-fix~1] Better common substring algorithm.
	     * [master~1] Release candidate #1
	   ++* [master~2] Pretty-print messages.

       Note that you should not do Octopus because you can. An octopus is a
       valid thing to do and often makes it easier to view the commit history
       if you are merging more than two independent changes at the same time.
       However, if you have merge conflicts with any of the branches you are
       merging in and need to hand resolve, that is an indication that the
       development happened in those branches were not independent after all,
       and you should merge two at a time, documenting how you resolved the
       conflicts, and the reason why you preferred changes made in one side
       over the other. Otherwise it would make the project history harder to
       follow, not easier.

SEE ALSO
       gittutorial(7), gittutorial-2(7), gitcvs-migration(7), git-help(1),
       Everyday git[3], The Git User’s Manual[1]

GIT
       Part of the git(1) suite.

NOTES
	1. the Git User Manual
	   file:///usr/share/doc/git/html/user-manual.html

	2. Randy Dunlap’s presentation
	   http://www.xenotime.net/linux/mentor/linux-mentoring-2006.pdf

	3. Everyday git
	   file:///usr/share/doc/git/html/everyday.html

Git 1.8.5.2			  01/09/2014		   GITCORE-TUTORIAL(7)
[top]

List of man pages available for Hurd

Copyright (c) for man pages and the logo by the respective OS vendor.

For those who want to learn more, the polarhome community provides shell access and support.

[legal] [privacy] [GNU] [policy] [cookies] [netiquette] [sponsors] [FAQ]
Tweet
Polarhome, production since 1999.
Member of Polarhome portal.
Based on Fawad Halim's script.
....................................................................
Vote for polarhome
Free Shell Accounts :: the biggest list on the net